mp-mm:m 


LIBRARY 

INIVERSITY  OF 
CALIFORNIA 
SAN  DIEGO 


presented  to  the 
UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
SAN  DIEGO 

by 

Douglas  Warren 


>   J-^J^T\ 


BOTTICELLI.    PALLAS.    TRIUMPH  OF  WISDOM  OVER  BARBARITY. 
PITTI  PALACE,  FLORENCE. 


THE 


WORLD'S    PAINTERS 


AND 


THEIR    PICTURES 


DERISTHE  L.  HOYT 

Lecturer  on  the  History  of  Painting  in  Mass.  Normal  Art  School,  Boston 
Author  of  "Historic  Schools  of  Painting" 


BOSTON,  U.S.A. 
GINN    &    COMPANY,    PUBLISHERS 


COPYRIGHT,  1898 
Bv  DERISTHE   L.  HOYT 


ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 
312.11 


gfte   fltfttnatum 

GINN   &   COMPANY  •  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


PREFACE. 


THE  present  universal  interest  in  the  subject  of  historic  art 
and  the  indications  that  very  soon  it  will  hold  equal  impor- 
tance in  our  school  curriculums  with  those  of  general  history 
and  literature,  are  sufficient  excuse  for  the  making  of  a  new 
book  which  treats  of  the  world's  painters  and  paintings. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  volume  will  be  of  especial  usefulness 
to  young  students  of  the  subject,  to  whom  it  has  been  care- 
fully adapted,  as  well  as  to  the  general  reader. 

In  it  reference  will  be  found  to  painters  of  greatest 
note  in  the  history  of  art,  a  careful  analysis  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  their  work,  and  abundant  and  well-arranged 
information  concerning  their  most  noted  pictures,  —  all 
in  accordance  with  the  decisions  of  the  latest  and  most 
authoritative  criticism.  This  latter  feature  will  be  found 
of  unusual  service  to  those  who  are  preparing  to  visit  the 
picture  galleries  of  the  Old  World. 

The  significance  of  colors  as  used  by  the  old  masters  and 
the  emblems  by  which  saints  and  other  sacred  personages, 
when  found  in  an  old  picture,  may  be  readily  recognized, 
as  well  as  the  pronouncing  vocabulary  of  artists'  names,  are 
useful  features  of  the  book. 

It  also  contains  a  list  of  pictures  which  have  grown  famil- 
iar to  the  public  through  reproduction,  together  with  names 
of  their  painters  and  the  places  where  they  are  to  be  found. 

-T  DERISTHE  L.  HOYT. 

NOVEMBER,  1898. 


CONTENTS. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS ix 

DEFINITIONS xi 

BIBLIOGRAPHY •          xv 

CHAPTER   I. 
ANCIENT  PAINTING  —  EGYPTIAN,  GREEK,  ROMAN  ...  i 

CHAPTER   II. 

BEGINNINGS  OF  MODERN  CHRISTIAN  PAINTING  —  EVOLUTION 

OF  ITALIAN  PAINTING 16 

CHAPTER   III. 

ITALIAN  PAINTING  —  FLORENTINE  OR  TUSCAN   SCHOOL. 

GOTHIC  PERIOD,  1250-1400 22 

CHAPTER   IV. 

ITALIAN  PAINTING — FLORENTINE  OR  TUSCAN   SCHOOL. 

EARLY  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  1400-1500  ....          34 

CHAPTER   V. 

ITALIAN  PAINTING  —  FLORENTINE  SCHOOL.    HIGH  RENAIS- 
SANCE PERIOD,  1500  1600 48 

v 


yi  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   VI. 

PAGE 

ITALIAN  PAINTING — SIENNESE  SCHOOL         ....         62 

CHAPTER   VII. 

ITALIAN  PAINTING — ROMAN  OR  UMBRIAN  SCHOOL     .        .         69 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
ITALIAN  PAINTING  —  PADUAN  SCHOOL 80 

CHAPTER  IX. 

ITALIAN   PAINTING  —  VENETIAN  SCHOOL.    EARLY  RENAIS- 
SANCE PERIOD,  1400-1500 84 

CHAPTER   X. 

ITALIAN   PAINTING  —  VENETIAN    SCHOOL.      HIGH  RENAIS- 
SANCE PERIOD,  1500-1600 92 

CHAPTER   XI. 
ITALIAN  PAINTING  —  FERRARESE  SCHOOL       ....        105 

CHAPTER   XII. 
ITALIAN  PAINTING — LOMBARD  SCHOOL         .        .        .        .        113 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

ITALIAN  PAINTING  —  BOLOGNESE  SCHOOL.     SCHOOL  OF  THE 

NATURALISTS 119 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

FRENCH  PAINTING  —  SIXTEENTH,  SEVENTEENTH,  AND  EIGHT- 
EENTH CENTURIES 132 


CONTENTS.  yii 


CHAPTER   XV. 

PAGE 

FRENCH  PAINTING  —  NINETEENTH  CENTURY         .        .        .        142 


CHAPTER   XVI. 
SPANISH  PAINTING 158 

CHAPTER   XVII. 

FLEMISH  PAINTING 169 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 
DUTCH  PAINTING 189 


GERMAN  PAINTING 207 


CHAPTER   XX. 
ENGLISH  PAINTING 227 

CHAPTER   XXI. 
AMERICAN  PAINTING 241 

CHAPTER   XXII. 
INTERESTING  INFORMATION  FOR  STUDENTS  OF  PICTURES     .        249 


INDEX    OF    ARTISTS    WITH    PRONUNCIATION    OF    FOREIGN 

NAMES 263 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Botticelli  — Pallas  leading  Captive,  Ignorance.    Pitti  Palace        .     Frontispiece 

PAGE 

1.  Greek  Painting — Muse  Polymnia.   Cortona        .         .         .  n 

2.  Pompeian  Fresco  —  ^Eneas  Wounded.    Naples  ...  13 

3.  Byzantine  Magdalen.   Academy,  Florence    .         .         .        .  14 

4.  Mosaic.    Sixth  Century.    San  Vitale,  Ravenna     ...  16 

5.  Giotto  —  Mourning  over  Dead  Christ.    Arena  Chapel         .  25 

6.  Fra  Angelico  —  Annunciation.    San  Marco,  Florence  .         .  31 

7.  Masaccio  —  St.  Peter  and  St.  John.    Brancacci  Chapel       .  36 

8.  Botticelli  —  Madonna.    Louvre 40 

9.  Leonardo  da  Vinci — Mona  Lisa.    Louvre   ....  50 
10.  Leonardo  da  Vinci  —  Head  of  Christ.    Brera  Gallery  .         .  51 
n.  Fra  Bart olommeo  —  Angel  with  Lute.    Lucca     ...  53 

12.  Michael  Angelo  —  Decorative  Figure.    Sistine  Chapel          .  57 

13.  Andrea  del  Sarto  —  St.  John  Baptist.    Pitti,  Florence          .  59 

14.  Duccio — Madonna.    Museum,  Sienna         ....  63 

15.  II  Sodoma  —  Adam  and  Eve.    Museum,  Sienna  ...  66 

16.  Melozzo  da  Forli  —  Angel.    St.  Peter's         ....  70 

17.  Perugino  —  St.  John.    S.  Maddalena  de' Pazzi,  Florence      .  71 

18.  Raphael  —  Madonna  di  San  Sisto.    Dresden        ...  76 

19.  Giovanni  Bellini  —  Dead  Christ.    Berlin  Museum        .         .  88 

20.  Giorgione  —  The  Concert.    Pitti,  Florence  ....  93 

21.  Titian  —  Catherine  Cornaro.    Uffizi,  Florence      ...  96 

22.  Tintoretto  —  Bacchus  and  Ariadne.    Venice         .         .         .  100 

23.  Correggio  —  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine.   Louvre          .         .  no 

24.  Luini — Marriage  of  St.  Catherine.    Poldi-Pezzoli,  Milan     .  116 


X  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

2  5.  Francia  —  Madonna.   Borghese,  Rome        .        .        .        .  1 20 

26.  Guido  Reni  —  Aurora.   Rospigliosi,  Rome  .         .         .        .  124 

27.  Salvator  Rosa — Brigands.   Academy  of  St.  Luke,  Rome   .  130 

28.  David  —  Napoleon  Crossing  the  Alps.   Versailles       .        .  143 

29.  Delaroche  —  Children  of  Edward  IV.   Louvre    .         .        .  147 

30.  Corot  —  The  Willows 150 

31.  Millet  —  The  Gleaners.   Louvre 153 

32.  Meissonier  —  1814 155 

33.  Velasquez  —  ^Esop.    Museum,  Madrid 161 

34.  Murillo  —  Madonna.    Pitti,  Florence 167 

35.  Hubert  van  Eyck  —  St.  Cecilia.   Berlin  Museum          .        .  171 

36.  Hans  Memling — Madonna.    Darmstadt      ....  174 

37.  Rubens  —  Holy  Family.    Pitti,  Florence       ....  181 

38.  Van  Dyck  —  Children  of  Charles  I.   Dresden      .        .         .  185 

39.  Rembrandt  —  Portrait.   Old  Pinacothek,  Munich        .        .  192 

40.  Terburg  —  Lady  Washing  Hands.    Dresden         .         .         .  195 

41.  Van  Mieris  —  Old  People  Eating.    Uffizi,  Florence      .         .  197 

42.  Meister  Wilhelm  —  Madonna.    Nuremberg          .         .         .  208 

43.  Durer  —  Portrait.   Berlin  Museum 210 

44.  Holbein  —  Portrait.   Old  Pinacothek,  Munich     .         .         .  219 

45.  Hofmann  —  Christ  and  Young  Ruler.   Dresden.        .         .  225 

46.  Reynolds  —  Duchess  of  Devonshire 229 

47.  Landseer — Waiting  for  the  Countess          ....  236 

48.  Burne-Jones  —  Night 239 

49.  Copley  —  Samuel  Adams.    Boston  Museum         .        .         .  242 

50.  Hunt  —  Boy  Violinist 246 

51.  Sargent  —  Head  of  Hosea.    Library,  Boston        .         .        .  247 

52.  Thayer  —  Caritas.   Boston  Museum 248 


DEFINITIONS. 


PAINTING  is  the  art  of  representing  objects  on  any  surface  by 
means  of  colors.  We  have  no  record  of  the  beginning  of  this 
art.  Its  earliest  remains  are  Egyptian,  and  of  these  the  very 
earliest  we  know  (those  executed  during  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs, 
alluded  to  in  the  Bible)  are  by  far  the  best,  showing  that  then 
the  art  was  already  in  its  decline. 

Haydon  says  in  one  of  his  lectures,  and  all  must  agree  with 
him,  that  "  the  very  first  man  born  after  the  creation  with  such  an 
intense  susceptibility  to  the  beauty  of  color  as  to  be  impelled  to 
attempt  its  imitation,  that  man  originated  painting." 

There  have  been  in  the  history  of  this  art  five  grand  styles,  or 
methods,  of  using  color,  viz.,  Tempera  or  Distemper,  Encaustic 
Fresco,  Oil,  and  Water-color. 

In  Tempera  or  Distemper  painting  the  colors  are  mixed  with 
some  cohesive  substance,  such  as  egg,  fig  juice,  glue,  size,  etc., 
which  causes  them  to  cling  to  the  surface  to  which  they  are 
applied.  This  is  the  earliest  style  known. 

In  Encaustic  painting  the  colors  are  mixed  with  wax.  The 
term  encaustic  is  strictly  applicable  only  to  painting  which  is 
executed  or  finished  by  the  direct  agency  of  heat ;  but  it  is  also 
applied  to  modern  methods,  in  which  wax  colors  are  dissolved 
in  a  volatile  oil,  and  then  used  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  true 
encaustic  painting  was  largely  employed  by  the  early  Greeks  and 
Romans.  These  paintings  occupy,  in  color  and  in  general  effect, 
a  place  midway  between  oil  and  fresco. 

In  Fresco  painting  the  colors  are  mixed  with  water  and  lime, 
and  are  then  applied  to  wet  or  dry  plaster.  When  colors  are 
applied  to  wet  plaster,  the  process  is  called  "  buon  fresco,"  or 
true  fresco.  Many  of  the  grandest  paintings  in  the  world  to-day 


Xll  DEFINITIONS. 

were  executed  in  this  style,  as  were  most  of  the  works  of  the  early 
Italian  masters.  When  the  colors  are  applied  to  dry  plaster,  the 
process  is  called  "fresco  a  secco,"  or  dry  fresco. 

In  Oil  painting  the  colors  are  mixed  with  oils,  together  with 
some  drying  medium,  and  applied  to  wood,  canvas,  or  any  pre- 
pared surface. 

In  Water-color  painting  the  colors  are  mixed  simply  with  water 
and  applied  to  a  surface,  usually  a  prepared  paper. 

Painting  may  be  divided  into  eight  especial  branches,  according 
to  the  subject  of  its  representation,  viz.,  mythological,  historical, 
portrait,  ideal,  landscape,  marine,  genre,  and  still-life. 

Mythological  painting  is  the  representation  of  subjects  and 
scenes  which  are  described  in  ancient  mythology. 

Historical  painting  is  the  representation  of  events  of  history 
with  regard  to  time,  place,  and  accessories 1 ;  at  the  same  time 
allowing  a  proper  exercise  of  the  imagination. 

Portrait  painting  is  the  representation  of  any  human  face  or 
figure  as  it  exists  in  nature. 

Ideal  painting  is  the  representation  of  any  face,  figure,  or 
scene,  as  it  exists  in  the  imagination  of  the  artist. 

Landscape  painting  is  the  representation  of  a  landscape ;  that 
is,  of  such  a  portion  of  territory  as  the  eye  can  comprehend  in  a 
single  view,  including  the  objects  it  contains. 

Marine  painting  is  the  representation  of  some  part  of  the 
ocean  with  its  accessories. 

Genre  is  the  branch  of  painting  that  takes  for  its  subjects  scenes 
illustrating  everyday  life.  Genre  painting  takes  the  place  in  art 
that  the  novel  occupies  in  literature. 

Still-life  painting  is  the  representation  of  objects  which  do  not 
possess  animal  life,  such  as  fruits,  flowers,  dead  game,  etc. 

When  less  regard  is  given  to  subject,  and  the  picture  depends 
more  for  its  value  upon  artistic  flow  and  combination  of  lines  and 
harmony  of  color,  then  it  assumes  more  or  less  of  the  decorative 
quality. 

Painting  without  subject  or  motive  is  purely  decorative. 

The  term  "  school  of  painting  "  has  various  significations  with 

1  See  "Technical  Terms  Used  in  Painting,"  p.  257. 


DEFINITIONS.  xill 

writers  on  art.  In  its  general  and  widest  sense  it  denotes  all  the 
painters  of  a  given  country,  without  reference  to  time  or  style ;  as 
the  Italian  School,  or  the  French  School. 

In  a  more  restricted  sense  it  refers  to  the  characteristic  style 
that  distinguishes  the  painters  of  a  particular  locality  or  period  ; 
in  this  sense  it  is  used  in  the  following  pages. 

In  its  most  limited  sense  it  signifies  the  distinctive  style  of  a 
particular  master  ;  as  School  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  or  School  of 
Raphael. 

The  ancient  painting  of  but  three  countries  —  Egypt,  Greece, 
and  Rome  —  is  considered  in  this  book. 

Those  who  are  especially  interested  in  ancient  art  will  find  in 
larger  works,  notably  those  of  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  much  of  value 
regarding  ancient  Asiatic  art,  which  is  not  of  special  service  to 
the  general  student. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Books  recommended  should  further  study  be  desired : 
GENERAL   WORKS. 

BRYAN.     Dictionary  of  Painters. 

LUBKE.     History  of  Art  (edited  by  Clarence  Cook). 

REBER.     History  of  Ancient  Art.     History  of  Mediaval  Art. 

VIARDOT.     History  of  Painters. 

WOLTMANN  and  WOERMANN.     History  of  Painting. 

W  o  R  N  u  M  .     Epochs  of  Painting. 

MRS.  CLEMENT.     Handbook  of  Legendary  Art. 

MRS.  JAMESON.     Legends  of  the  Madonna,  etc. 

ESPECIAL   WORKS. 
ANCIENT  PAINTING. 

PERROT  and   CHIPIEZ.      History  of  Art  in  Ancient   Egypt.      Art  in 

Chaldea  and  Assyria.     Art  in  Persia.     Art  in  Greece. 
WILKINSON.     Ancient  Egyptians. 

MODERN  PAINTING. 
Italian  Painting. 

CROWE  and  CAVALCASELLE.     New  History  of  Painting  in  Italy . 

KUGLER.     Italian  Schools  of  Painting  (edited  by  Layard,  latest  edition). 

LANZI.     History  of  Painting  in  Italy. 

LINDSAY.     History  of  Christian  Art. 

MORELLI.     Critical  Studies  of  Italian  Painters. 

TAINE.     Italy,  Rome  and  Naples.     Italy,  Florence  and  Venice. 

VASARI.     Lives  of  Painters  (edited  by  E.  H.  and  E.  W.  Blashfield  and 

A.  A.  Hopkins). 
Biographies  of  various  artists. 

xv 


XVI  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


French  Painting. 

BLANC.     Histoire  des  Peintres  franfais  au  XIXme  siecle. 
BROWNELL.     French  Art. 
HAMERTON.     Contemporary  French  Painting. 
STRANAHAN.     History  of  French  Painting. 
Biographies  of  various  artists. 

Spanish  Painting. 

FORD.     Handbook  of  Spain. 

HEAD.     History  of  Spanish  and  French  Painting. 
STIRLING.     Annals  of  Spanish  Artists. 
Biographies  of  various  artists. 

Flemish,  Dutch,  and  German  Painting. 

CROWE  and  CAVALCASELLE.     Early  Flemish  Painters. 

FROMENTIN.     Old  Masters  of  Belgium  and  Holland. 

KIJGLER.     German,  Flemish,  and  Dutch  Schools  of  Painting  (edited 

by  J.  A.  Crowe). 

VAN  DYKE.     Old  Dutch  and  Flemish  Masters. 
Biographies  of  various  artists. 

British  Painting. 
COOK.     Art  in  England. 

CUNNINGHAM.     Lives  of  Most  Eminent  British  Artists. 
REDGRAVE.     Dictionary  of  Artists  of  English  School. 
RUSKIN.     Art  in  England. 
SCOTT.     British  Landscape  Painters. 
WAAGEN.      Works  of  Art  and  Artists  in  Great  Britain. 
Biographies  of  various  artists. 

American  Painting. 

BENJAMIN.     Contemporary  Art  in  America. 
CLEMENT  and  HUTTON.     Artists  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
CUMMINGS.     Annals  of  National  Academy. 
LESTER.     Artists  of  America. 
SHELDON.     American  Painters. 
Biographies  of  various  artists. 


THE    WORLD'S    PAINTERS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ANCIENT    PAINTING. 


EGYPTIAN    PAINTING. 

THE  beginning  of  Egyptian  painting  is  unknown  ;  its  end 
was  about  400  A.D.  There  are  few  known  historical  facts 
connected  with  painting  in  Egypt.  Three  classes  of  paint- 
ings have  been  discovered  there,  —  those  on  the  walls,  those 
on  the  cases  and  cloths  of  mummies,  and  those  on  papyrus 
rolls.  None  of  these  can  be  called  imitative,  yet  they  are 
sufficiently  so  to  be  intelligible. 

Painting  in  this  country  was  practised  under  peculiar 
conditions  :  the  profession  was  passed  on  from  father  to  son 
by  law  ;  not  love  for  the  art,  but  heredity  dictated  who 
should  be  the  painter  or  sculptor  ;  and,  as  artists  were  for- 
bidden by  a  jealous  priesthood  to  introduce  any  change 
whatever  into  the  practice  of  their  art,  it  remained  stationary 
from  generation  to  generation.  The  principal  subjects  are 
Egyptian  gods  and  religious  rites  connected  with  them,  — 
wars,  various  domestic  occupations,  and  burial  ceremonials. 

Striking  characteristics  of  the  painting  of  the  Egyptians 
are  the  brightness  and  purity  of  the  color.  Six  pigments 
seem  to  have  been  used,  —  white,  black,  red,  blue,  yellow, 

i 


2  THE    WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

and  green ;  and  these  appear  to  have  been  applied  without 
mixture,  but  sometimes  to  have  been  modified  by  white  chalk. 

The  style  of  painting  is  tempera.1  Different  colors  are 
used  to  represent  different  objects  :  men  and  women  are 
painted  red,  the  men  being  redder  than  the  women ;  prisoners 
are  painted  yellow ;  water,  blue ;  and  birds,  blue  and  green. 

In  drawing  there  is  not  the  slightest  indication  of  a 
knowledge  of  foreshortening2  or  perspective.3  All  the 
figures  are  drawn  in  profile  without  any  distinction  of  light 
and  shade,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  small  portraits  on 
cedar  or  sycamore  wood  which  have  been  found  quite 
recently  in  mummy  cases,  and  are  probably  portraits  of  the 
persons  to  whose  mummies  they  were  attached.  These  are 
generally  full-faced  and  have  a  very  slight  relief,  distinctly 
expressed  by  light'  and  shade. 

Egyptian  painting  can  still  be  seen  in  temple  ruins  along 
the  river  Nile,  especially  at  Abydos  and  Philae ;  and  good 
specimens  of  the  mummy  portraits  are  in  the  great  Egyptian 
Museum  at  Gizeh,  Egypt,  and  in  the  Egyptian  departments 
of  the  various  art  museums  of  the  world. 

After  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  the  Ptolemies  (about 
300  B.C.),  Egyptian  painting  was  influenced  by  Greek. 

GREEK   PAINTING. 

Very  few  Greek  paintings  are  in  existence  at  the  present 
day,  yet  the  works  of  ancient  writers  contain  abundant 
information  on  the  subject. 

Greek  painting  in  its  earliest  stages  was  very  crude  and 
simple.  At  first  it  consisted  merely  in  coloring  statues  and 
reliefs  of  wood  and  clay  ;  next,  in  the  decoration  of  vases  ; 
but  from  about  600-400  B.C.  was  a  period  of  wonderful 

1  See  "  Definitions,"  p.  xi. 

2  See  "Technical  Terms  Used  in  Painting,"  p.  258. 
8  Ibid.,  p.  259. 


ANCIENT  PAINTING.  3 

development  of  the  art.  During  this  time  Greek  artists 
mastered  the  subjects  of  foreshortening,  perspective,  chia- 
roscuro,1 and  anatomy,  and  produced  pictures,  some  of 
which  (if  we  credit  the  descriptions  of  Pliny)  must  have 
been  rivals  of  the  masterpieces  of  the  modern  schools. 

Greek  paintings  were  executed  in  tempera  and  encaustic.2 

The  following  are  among  the  most  noted  Greek  painters 
mentioned  in  history. 

Cimon  of  Cleonae  (600  B.C.)  was  the  earliest  Greek  painter 
worthy  of  the  name  of  artist.  He  was  the  inventor  of 
foreshortening,  and  was  the  first  to  attempt  oblique  views 
of  the  human  figure.  He  also  first  denoted  muscular 
articulations,  indicated  the  veins,  and  gave  natural  forms 
to  draperies. 

Polygnotus  (about  480  B.C.)  raised  painting  in  Greece  to 
the  dignity  of  an  independent  art.  He  practised  it  with 
such  a  degree  of  excellence  that  it  became  the  admiration 
of  all  Greece.  De  Pauw  says  :  "  As  Homer  was  the  founder 
of  epic  poetry,  so  was  Polygnotus  the  founder  of  historic 
painting."  He  represented  the  battles  of  the  Greeks,  the 
taking  of  Troy,  and  the  visit  of  Ulysses  to  Hades,  in  pictures 
crowded  with  figures.  These,  however,  were  merely  colored 
outline  sketches  on  a  dark  background,  destitute  of  all 
roundness,  entirely  without  perspective,  and  painted  with 
four  colors  only.  The  composition  l  of  these  pictures  would 
be  considered  barbarous  at  the  present  time;  the  various 
groups  were  not  arranged  according  to  any  artistic  or 
dramatic  design,  but  simply  in  rows,  one  above  another 
(there  were  three  of  these  rows  in  each  picture),  yet  the 
evident  thought  shown  in  the  whole,  the  beauty,  action,  and 
expression  of  the  figures  aroused  the  admiration  of  all  the 
critics  of  that  time,  and  even  of  those  of  a  much  later  age. 

1  See  "  Technical  Terms  Used  in  Painting,"  p.  257. 
3  See  "  Definitions,"  p.  xi. 


4  THE    WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

The  first  portrait  on  record  by  a  known  painter  is  that 
of  Elpinice,  the  sister  of  a  Greek  named  Cimon,  which 
Polygnotus  painted  in  the  picture  "The  Rape  of  Cas- 
sandra "  in  the  Ceramicus  at  Athens.  That  the  works  of 
Polygnotus  were  distinguished  for  character  and  expression 
is  shown  by  the  surname  of  Ethographos  (painter  of  char- 
acter), which  was  given  to  him  by  Aristotle. 

Micon  (about  475  B.C.)  of  Athens  won  a  high  distinction 
by  his  painting  of  horses.  He  was  one  of  the  painters 
employed  to  record  the  victories  of  the  Athenians  on  the 
walls  of  some  of  the  principal  temples  of  Athens. 

In  the  Temple  of  Theseus  he  painted  the  "  Battle  of  the 
Amazons l  with  the  Athenians  under  Theseus  "  and,  opposite 
this  picture,  the  "  Battle  of  the  Centaurs  2  and  the  Lapithae."  3 
The  horses  in  these  pictures  are  particularly  praised  by 
Pausanias.  We  read  that  an  eminent  judge  of  horses  once 
found  fault  with  Micon  because  he  painted  eyelashes  to 
their  under  eyelids,  which  horses  do  not  have.  Wornum 
says:  "It  speaks  rather  in  favor  of  the  painting  than  other- 
wise that  so  experienced  a  critic  could  detect  only  so  slight 
a  fault."  We  know  that  the  representations  of  these  animals 
by  Micon  must  have  been  good,  for  they  were  produced  at 
the  same  time  as  those  celebrated  ones  which  were  executed 
on  the  frieze4  of  the  Parthenon  under  the  direction  of 
Phidias,5  and  yet  were  distinguished  for  their  excellence. 
Micon's  method  of  painting  is  spoken  of  by  Varro  as  being 
crude  and  unfinished  when  compared  with  the  works  of 
Apelles  and  other  later  Greek  artists. 

1  A  fabulous  race  of  female  warriors  who  founded  an  empire  on  the 
shore  of  the  Euxine.  2  Fabulous  beings,  half  man  and  half  horse. 

8  A  people  spoken  of  in  fabulous  Grecian  history,  descended  from 
Lapithes,  son  of  Apollo. 

4  The  flat  face  above  the  columns  of  a  building,  which  is  so  often 
decorated  with  sculptures. 

6  One  of  the  most  noted  Greek  sculptors. 


ANCIENT  PAINTING.  5 

Apollodorus  (about  450  B.C.)  of  Athens,  also  noted  as  a 
sculptor,  was  the  first  great  master  of  light  and  shade.  A 
certain  Dionysius  of  Colophon,  who  lived  and  painted  just 
before  Apollodorus,  had  studied  chiaroscuro  and  had  made 
a  gradation  of  light  and  shade  in  his  works  ;  but  Apollodorus 
was  the  first  to  attain  an  imitation  of  the  various  effects  of 
light  and  shade  upon  color  that  are  always  to  be  seen  in 
nature.  He  received  from  his  contemporaries  the  name  of 
"  the  shadower,"  or  "  the  painter  of  shadows."  He  also 
gave  a  more  picturesque  arrangement  to  his  figures  than 
had  been  done  before.  Plutarch  mentions  Apollodorus  and 
says  that  he  was  in  the  habit  of  writing  upon  his  works  : 
"  It  is  easier  to  find  fault  than  to  imitate."  Pliny  says  that 
he  was  "the  first  artist  whose  pictures  riveted  the  eye." 
He  also  calls  him  "  the  first  luminary  in  art,"  but  mentions 
only  two  of  his  pictures,  —  a  "  Priest  in  the  Act  of  Devotion  " 
and  "  Ajax  Wrecked,"  the  latter  of  which,  in  Pliny's  time, 
was  at  Perganum. 

Zeuxis  (about  400  B.C.)  of  Heraclea  combined  a  fine 
representation  of  form  with  a  high  degree  of  technical  excel- 
lence. His  pictures  must  have  been  marked  by  a  thoroughly 
good  general  effect,  for  it  is  said  that  Apollodorus  once 
complained  that  Zeuxis  had  robbed  him  of  his  art. 

He  was  distinguished  for  his  original  choice  of  subjects. 
Other  artists  had  represented  chiefly  gods,  heroes,  and 
battles;  Zeuxis  selected  things  hitherto  unattempted,  and  is 
said  to  have  succeeded  admirably  in  giving  expression  to 
situations  full  of  meaning  and  vivacity.  His  most  noted 
picture  was  "Helen  of  Croton,"  which  was  painted  from 
five  of  the  most  noble  and  beautiful  maidens  of  that 
place. 

Zeuxis  is  said  to  have  been  very  proud  of  his  reputation 
and  wealth,  and  to  have  worn  a  shawl  or  mantle  into  whose 
border  was  woven  his  name  in  letters  of  gold. 


6  THE    WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Parrhasius  (about  400  B.C.)  of  Ephesus  was  a  rival  of 
Zeuxis,  and  was  remarkable  both  for  invention  and  execution. 
He  gave  especial  beauty  to  the  contours  of  his  figures,  and 
excelled  in  the  drawing  of  hands  and  feet.  According  to 
Pliny,  he  was  the  first  to  apply  the  law  of  proportion  to  the 
painting  of  figures.  He  gave  refinement  to  the  expression 
of  the  face,  elegance  to  the  hair,  and  a  winning  charm  to 
the  mouth.  He  was  a  very  vain  man,  terming  himself 
on  his  pictures  "the  elegant"  and  "prince  of  painters." 
Pliny  calls  him  "  the  most  insolent  and  arrogant  of  artists." 
There  are  several  stories  told  about  illusive x  pictures  painted 
by  Zeuxis  and  Parrhasius  which  are  a  proof  to  us  that  the 
Greeks  at  this  time  possessed  perfect  materials  with  which 
to  work,  and  that  they  must  have  displayed  much  finish  of 
detail.  One  is  as  follows  :  A  contest  had  been  fixed  upon 
that  was  to  decide  which  of  these  two  rival  painters  was  the 
greater.  On  the  appointed  day  very  many  friends  of  both 
Zeuxis  and  Parrhasius  were  gathered  together.  Zeuxis 
brought  a  painting  of  fruit ;  Parrhasius,  a  picture  covered 
by  a  veil.  So  perfectly  was  the  fruit  represented  that,  when 
the  painting  had  been  placed  in  a  conspicuous  position, 
birds  flew  down  and  pecked  at  it.  In  proud  triumph,  amid 
the  acclamations  of  his  friends,  Zeuxis  turned  to  Parrhasius, 
bidding  him  now  remove  the  veil  from  his  picture  that  his 
work  might  be  seen.  Whereupon  Parrhasius  claimed  the 
award,  saying  the  veil  was  the  picture ;  and  surely  he  was  the 
greater  artist,  since  Zeuxis  had  deceived  the  birds  only, 
while  he  had  deceived  Zeuxis  himself.  One  of  Parrhasius' 
most  noted  works  was  a  "  Theseus,"  which  was  afterwards 
in  the  Capitol  at  Rome. 

Timanthes  (about  400  B.C.)  of  Cythnos  was  also  a  con- 
temporary and  rival  of  Parrhasius,  and  was  distinguished 
for  originality  of  invention  and  expression.  Pliny  says  of 
1  Intended  to  deceive  the  eye. 


ANCIENT  PAINTING.  7 

him  that,  though  his  execution  was  always  excellent,  it  was 
invariably  surpassed  by  his  conception,  and  mentions,  as  an 
instance,  a  picture  of  a  sleeping  Cyclops,1  which  was  painted 
upon  a  small  panel ;  but  the  artist  had  ingeniously  conveyed 
an  adequate  idea  of  the  giant's  huge  form  by  painting  a 
group  of  little  satyrs 2  measuring  his  thumb  with  a  thyrsus.8 
Only  four  pictures  of  Timanthes  are  mentioned  by  ancient 
writers,  but  more,  probably,  has  been  written  both  by  ancient 
and  modern  writers  about  one  of  these  four  pictures  than 
about  any  other  ancient  work  of  art.  This  is  the  "  Sacrifice 
of  Iphigenia,"  in  which  was  contained  the  figure  of  Aga- 
memnon, whose  face  was  concealed  within  his  mantle.  All 
ancient  writers,  including  Cicero  and  Quintilian,  who  have 
described  the  picture,  have  approved  of  this  artifice  of  the 
painter  for  hinting  at  an  anguish  so  deep  that  it  could  not 
be  portrayed  ;  but  some  modern  critics,  notably  Falconet 
and  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  have  condemned  it,  saying  that  it 
was  simply  a  trick,  and  only  betrayed  the  artist's  lack  of 
power  to  express  such  emotion.  Fuseli,  on  the  other  hand, 
upholds  Timanthes. 

Apelles  (350  B.C.)  of  Cos  brought  Greek  art  to  its  high- 
est perfection.  In  him  grace  of  conception  and  refinement 
of  taste  went  hand  in  hand  with  almost  perfect  execution. 
Liibke  says  that  "he  seems,  like  an  antique  Raphael,  to 
have  lent  to  his  works  a  finished  charm  and  that  delicate 
spirit  of  beauty  which  can  arise  only  from  a  combination 
of  exquisitely  yielding  forms  with  a  subtle  fusion  of  tints 
and  a  noble,  full-souled  conception."  The  majority  of  the 
works  of  Apelles  seem  to  have  been  portraits,  or  of  a  por- 
trait character. 

1  A  fabulous  race  of  giants  inhabiting  Sicily,  who  had  but  one  eye 
each,  and  that  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead. 

2  A  sylvan  or  rustic  deity,  half  man  and  half  goat. 

8  A  staff  entwined  with  ivy  or  grapevine,  which  was  an  emblem  of 
the  satyrs. 


8  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Several  anecdotes  are  told  of  Apelles  which  are  of  espe- 
cial interest ;  one  is  of  the  celebrated  "  contest  of  lines  " 
which  has  been  so  variously  explained  for  ages.  The  fol- 
lowing is  Pliny's  account :  "  Apelles,  upon  his  arrival  at 
Rhodes,  immediately  sought  out  the  studio  of  Protogenes, 
who  happened  to  be  away  from  home,  but  an  old  woman 
was  in  attendance  taking  charge  of  a  large  panel,  which 
was  standing  ready  prepared  upon  an  easel.  When  the  old 
woman  inquired  what  name  she  should  give  to  her  master 
upon  his  return,  Apelles  answered  by  taking  a  pencil  (or 
brush)  wet  with  color  and  drawing  a  line  (lima)  on  the 
panel,  saying  simply,  '  This.'  When  her  master  returned, 
the  old  woman  pointed  out  what  had  happened,  and  Pro- 
togenes, when  he  saw  the  panel,  cried  out  instantly,  '  Apelles 
has  been  here,  for  that  is  the  work  of  no  other  hand ' ;  and 
he  took  a  pencil  and  with  another  color  drew  upon  the  same 
line  or  panel  (in  ilia  ipsd)  a  still  finer  line,  and  going  away 
gave  orders  to  the  old  woman  that  when  Apelles  returned  she 
was  to  show  him  'that,'  and  tell  him  it  was  whom  he  sought. 
Apelles  returned,  and,  blushing  to  see  himself  surpassed, 
drew  a  third  line  between  or  upon  those  two  in  a  third  color, 
and  attained  the  summit  of  subtilty,  leaving  no  possibility 
of  being  surpassed.  When  Protogenes  returned  a  second 
time,  he  acknowledged  himself  vanquished  and  immediately 
sought  out  Apelles."  Pliny  goes  on  to  say  that  this  panel 
was  handed  down  to  posterity  as  a  wonder. 

The  controversy  regarding  the  story  has  been  as  to  the 
proper  translation  of  the  word  linea,  —  whether  it  means 
simply  a  line  or  a  sketch. 

The  character  of  Apelles  is  shown  in  a  noble  light  by  his 
conduct  towards  Protogenes,  who  was  not  appreciated  by 
the  Rhodians,  among  whom  he  lived.  Apelles,  finding  that 
he  had  many  pictures  that  he  could  not  sell,  offered  to 
purchase  them  at  his  own  price,  but  Protogenes  fixed  so 


ANCIENT  PAINTING.  9 

\ 

low  a  sum  that  Apelles  finally  told  him  that  he  would  give 
fifty  talents  for  the  whole,  and  allowed  it  to  be  reported  at 
Rhodes  that  he  intended  to  sell  them  as  his  own  work. 
This  caused  the  Rhodians  to  see  the  great  merit  of  their 
own  painter,  and  they  made  haste  to  secure  the  pictures  for 
themselves  at  the  same  great  price  that  Apelles  had  named. 
The  common  old  proverb,  "  Let  the  cobbler  stick  to  his 
last,"  originated,  it  is  said,  with  this  artist.  It  was  the 
custom  of  Greek  artists  to  exhibit  their  pictures  to  public 
view  in  the  front  or  porches  of  their  houses.  A  certain 
cobbler  ventured  to  find  fault  with  the  sandal  on  the  foot 
of  one  of  Apelles'  figures  thus  exposed.  When  he  saw  this 
fault  corrected  on  the  following  day,  he  was  bold  enough 
to  criticise  the  leg,  when  Apelles  came  out  and  indignantly 
exclaimed,  " Ne  sutor  supra  crepidam!"  ("Let  the  cobbler 
stick  to  his  last !  "). 

Apelles  was  noted  among  his  contemporaries  for  his  in- 
dustry, his  motto  being  Nulla  dies  sine  linea  (No  day  without 
a  line).  His  masterpiece  was  considered  to  be  "  Venus 
Rising  from  the  Waters."  This  picture  was  painted  for  the 
people  of  Cos,  and  was  placed  in  the  temple  of  ^Esculapius 
on  that  island,  and  remained  there  until  it  was  removed  by 
Augustus,  who  took  it  in  the  place  of  one  hundred  talents 
tribute  and  dedicated  it  in  the  temple  of  Julius  Caesar  at 
Rome.  The  beautiful  goddess  was  here  represented  as 
shaking  the  water  from  her  long  hair,  and  the  sparkling 
shower  was  her  only  veil.  The  picture  received  some  injury 
on  the  voyage,  and  was  in  such  a  decayed  state  in  the  time 
of  Emperor  Nero  that  he  removed  it  from  the  temple  of 
Julius  Caesar,  substituting  a  copy  of  it  by  Dorotheus  ;  what 
afterward  became  of  it  is  unknown. 

Protogenes  (about  350  B.C.)  of  Rhodes  was  the  most  noted 
of  the  contemporaries  of  Apelles,  from  whom  he  won  most 
hearty  admiration.  Indeed,  Apelles  said  that  Protogenes 


10  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

equalled  him  in  all  respects  save  in  knowing  when  to  leave 
off.  Protogenes  was  a  famous  animal  painter.  It  is  written 
of  him  that,  in  a  picture  of  a  reposing  satyr  with  a  flute  in 
his  hand,  he  introduced  a  quail  so  exquisitely  painted  in 
every  detail  that  it  took  the  attention  from  the  rest  of  the 
picture  and  therefore  he  effaced  it. 

His  most  celebrated  picture  was  "  Jalysus  and  his  Dog," 
on  which  he  is  said  to  have  painted  seven  years.  Foam 
was  represented  at  the  mouth  of  the  dog,  and  it  is  said  to 
have  been  accomplished  by  Protogenes  by  the  throwing  of 
his  sponge  at  the  picture  of  the  dog's  head  in  a  fit  of  ill- 
humor,  after  he  had  tried  over  and  over  again  in  vain  to 
produce  the  desired  effect.  This  picture  was  preserved  in 
a  certain  part  of  the  city  of  Rhodes,  and  was  the  means  of 
saving  it,  for  Demetrius,  when  he  besieged  the  city  304  B.C., 
respected  that  part  lest  the  picture  should  be  destroyed. 
Afterward  it  was  taken  to  Rome  and  placed  in  the  Temple 
of  Peace,  and  finally  was  burned  in  the  fire  that  consumed 
this  temple. 

About  220  B.C.  lived  Antiphilus,  who  was  the  cause  of  a 
celebrated  picture  painted  by  Apelles  of  Ephesus  (about  220 
B.C.),  which  is  described  by  Lucian,  and  has  furnished  a 
theme  for  several  modern  painters.  Antiphilus,  influenced 
by  jealousy,  accused  Apelles,  who  was  then  residing  in  the 
court  of  Ptolemy  Philopator,  of  being  connected  with  the 
conspiracy  of  Theodotus,  governor  of  Ccele-Syria. 

At  first  Ptolemy  listened  to  the  calumny  with  some 
credence,  but  on  the  innocence  of  Apelles  being  proved, 
presented  him  with  one  hundred  talents  and  condemned 
Antiphilus  to  be  his  slave.  Apelles,  evidently  not  satisfied 
with  the  attempted  reparation,  returned  to  Ephesus  and 
painted  his  picture  of  "  Calumny."  Lucian,  who  saw  it, 
thus  describes  it :  "  On  the  right  hand  was  the  sitting  figure 
of  a  man,  with  ears  very  like  those  of  Midas,  holding  out 


ANCIENT  PAINTING. 


11 


his  hand  to  Calumny,  yet  at  a  distance,  who  was  approach- 
ing him.  Near  him,  on  each  side,  stood  a  female  figure 
representing  Suspicion  and  Ignorance.  Calumny  was  rep- 
resented as  a  beautiful  maid,  but  with  a  most  malicious 
expression.  In  her  left 
hand  she  bore  a  burn- 
ing torch,  while  with 
her  right  hand  she  was 
dragging  along  a  young 
man  by  the  hair,  who 
was  extending  both  his 
hands  towards  heaven; 
she  was  preceded  by 
Envy,  as  an  emaciated 
man,  and  followed  by 
two  females  represent- 
ing Deceit  and  Artifice. 
In  the  background  was 
Repentance,  weeping, 
and  Truth  approaching 
her." 

Very  soon  after  this 
time  great  political  rev- 
olutions began  to  convulse  Greece,  and  the  agitation  of 
wars  and  politics  retarded  the  exercise  of  the  fine  arts.  Her 
public  buildings  were  already  filled  to  overflowing  with  art 
works  (if  we  may  credit  historians),  and  therefore  the  public 
demand  grew  less.  Inferior  styles  of  art  were  developed 
which  characterized  this  period  of  decline.  Thus,  there 
were  painters  of  genre,1  of  barbers'  shops,  cobblers'  stalls,  etc. 
Painting  began  also  to  be  applied  to  the  ordinary  decoration 
of  furniture.  A  debasement  of  taste  became  general,  and  the 
decline  and  death  of  Greek  art  was  inevitable. 
1  See  "  Definitions,"  p.  xii. 


GREEK  PAINTING.     MUSB  POLYMNIA. 
GORTON  A  MUSEUM. 


12  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Examples  of  ancient  Greek  painting  may  be  seen  to-day 
in  the  Museum  of  Naples,  where  have  been  collected  quite 
a  number  of  fragmentary  specimens  (chiefly  from  Paestum), 
some  of  which  possess  great  beauty  and  depth  of  expression. 
One  fine  example  is  in  the  Museum  of  Cortona,  Italy.  This 
represents  the  Muse  Polymnia  as  a  young  girl  holding  a 
lyre. 

In  the  library  of  the  Vatican,  Rome,  is  a  very  interesting 
ancient  painting  called  "  Nozze  Aldobrandini,"  or  the  "  Aldo- 
brandini  Nuptials."  This  was  discovered  on  a  ruined  wall 
near  the  Arch  of  Gallienus  on  the  Esquiline,  Rome,  and  was 
sawed  from  the  wall  for  Cardinal  Aldobrandini,  who  placed 
it  in  his  home  ;  hence  its  name. 

It  is  a  composition  of  ten  figures  clothed  in  Greek  drapery, 
and  evidently  represents  a  Greek  marriage  ceremony.  The 
painting  is  very  broad  and  decorative,  and  is  thought  by 
connoisseurs  to  be  probably  some  skilful  decorator's  version 
of  a  celebrated  easel  picture,  possibly  a  "  Marriage "  by 
Echion,  a  Greek,  who  is  mentioned  by  Cicero  and  Pliny  as 
a  famous  painter.  Pliny  speaks  of  this  picture  as  represent- 
ing "  a  bride  remarkable  for  her  expression  of  modesty." 

ROMAN   PAINTING. 

The  fine  arts  were  transmitted  to  the  Romans  by  the 
Greeks,  but  only  in  a  debased  form. 

Ancient  Rome  was  more  distinguished  for  her  collections 
of  paintings  than  for  her  artists,  these  collections  having 
been  supplied  from  the  rich  treasures  of  Greece.  Paint- 
ing, however,  in  its  decorative l  form  was  practised  by  the 
Romans  as  early  as  300  B.C.  Pliny  tells  us  that  the  head 
of  the  noble  family  of  the  Fabii  acquired  his  surname  of 
Pictor  from  his  skill  in  the  art,  and  that  he  decorated  the 
1  See  "  Definitions,"  p.  xii. 


ANCIENT  PAINTING. 


13 


Temple  of  Salus.  The  poet  Pacuvius  also  was  an  artist. 
"Afterwards,"  says  Pliny,  "the  art  was  not  practised  by 
'  polite  hands '  (honestis  manibus)  among  the  Romans,  except, 


POMPBIAN  FRESCO.    .<ENEAS  WOUNDED.    MUSEUM,  NAPLES. 

perhaps,  in  the  case  of  Turpilius,  an  amateur  of  his  own 
time,  who  executed  some  good  pictures  at  Verona." 

At  the  end  of  the  Republic,  Rome  was  said  to  be  full  of 
artists,  but  all,  or  nearly  all,  were  inferior  portrait  painters 


14 


THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


or  decorators.  At  length,  on  account  of  the  common  con- 
ventional decorative  character  the  art  had  assumed,  it  was 
left  to  be  prac-  ^  tised  almost  wholly  by  slaves,  and 
the  painter  ^^^flB  ^^^^  ranked  according  to  the  quan- 
tity of  ^^0|  ^^^_  work  he  could  produce  in 

a  day.  In  the  time 
of  Vespasian,  just 
after  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era, 
Pliny  regarded 
painting  as  a  per- 
ishing art,  used  only 
to  minister  to  luxury 
or  vanity. 

The  remains  of 
the  paintings  of 
Pompeii  and  Her- 
culaneum  enable 
the  world  now  to 
judge  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  ordinary 
decorative  work  of 
these  Roman  paint- 
ers. These  may  be 
seen  in  large  num- 
bers at  the  Museum 
of  Naples.  They 
are  wall  paintings 
and  represent  danc- 
ing girls,  Grecian 
and  Roman  myths, 
fantastic  animals, 
and  genre  sketches  mingled  with  many  low  and  even  vulgar 
designs.  The  coloring  is  very  rich,  composed  of  brilliant 


BYZANTINE  MAGDALEN.    ACADEMY,  FLORENCE. 


ANCIENT  PAINTING.  15 

reds  and  blues  and  soft  yellows.  The  peculiar  red  used 
is  known  to-day  by  the  name  of  "  Pompeian  red."  The 
intensity  of  the  colors  employed  was  probably  due  to  the 
small  amount  of  light  allowed  in  the  apartments. 

Ancient  art,  as  distinguished  by  any  especial  character- 
istics, ceased  about  the  close  of  the  third  century  of  the 
Christian  era.  From  the  third  to  the  thirteenth  century 
were  the  so-called  "  Dark  Ages,"  during  which  time  nearly 
all  the  treasures  of  ancient  art  were  lost  to  the  world.  War, 
pillage,  and  the  fanatic  fury  of  the  Iconoclasts,  or  Image- 
breakers,  were  the  direct  causes  of  this  calamity.  Constan- 
tinople, during  the  Middle  Ages,  became  the  capital  of  the 
arts.  Here  was  practised  the  Greek  Byzantine  painting 
which  spread  into  Italy  —  a  style  wholly  destitute  of  worth 
or  beauty,  and  which,  from  having  been  perpetuated  only 
by  conventional  copies,  had  become  wholly  debased  and 
pitifully  lifeless.  Examples  of  this  kind  of  painting  may  be 
seen  in  almost  all  the  largest  European  art  galleries  to-day. 
A  notable  one  is  in  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Florence  — 
a  Magdalen  with  wooden-jointed  body,  with  emaciated,  elon- 
gated limbs  and  helpless  hanging  hands  and  feet,  no  part 
of  whose  body  seems  to  belong  to  any  other ;  the  eyes  are 
round,  staring,  perfectly  expressionless.  It  is  painted  in 
tempera,  with  greenish  and  brownish  colors,  upon  a  flat, 
gold  background. 


CHAPTER    II. 

BEGINNINGS    OF    MODERN    PAINTING. 


EARLY    CHRISTIAN    PAINTING. 

EXAMPLES  of  the  earliest  Christian  painting  executed  dur- 
ing this  period  may  still  be  seen  in  the  Catacombs  of  Rome. 
Those  executed  first  are  simply  symbolic,  as  the  monogram 
of  Christ,  fish,  loaves  of  bread,  the  vine,  etc.  ;  then  figures 


MOSAIC.    SIXTH  CENTURY.    SAVIOUR  WITH  ANGELS  AND  SAINTS. 
SAN  VITALE,  RAVENNA. 

of  saints  and  of  Christ  appear,  and  afterward  the  represen- 
tation of  Bible  scenes.  All  are  very  simple  in  composition 
and  crude  in  technique. 

The  most  important  examples  of  early  Christian  painting 
(for  they  must  have  been  wrought  from  paintings)  are  the 

16 


BEGINNINGS  OF  MODERN  PAINTING.  17 

mosaics  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth 
centuries  found  in  the  early  Christian  churches  of  Rome 
and  other  Italian  cities,  especially  of  Ravenna,  also  in 
churches  of  Constantinople.  These  form  an  important  link 
between  ancient  and  modern  painting,  as  do  also  the  manu- 
script illuminations  which  are  chiefly  the  work  of  monks 
and  were  wrought  in  monasteries.  These  are  now  treasured 
in  art  museums  and  libraries,  some  of  the  most  valuable 
being  in  the  Vatican,  Rome. 

REVIVAL   OF    THE   ART. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  began  the 
great  revival  of  art,  in  which  modern  Italian  painting  took 
precedence. 

The  causes  of  this  wonderful  revival  are  not  very  obvious. 
Probably  it  was  due  to  the  combination  of  many  influences. 
Certain  it  is  that  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth  century 
there  occurred  a  series  of  great  events  which  awoke  new  life 
everywhere,  both  in  individual  nations  and  gradually  through- 
out the  Christian  world.  The  discovery  of  gunpowder,  by 
rendering  strongholds  of  tyrants  untenable,  put  an  end  to 
much  warfare  and  plunder  and  promoted  peace,  which,  by 
giving  leisure  for  thought,  is  a  foster-mother  to  civilization 
and  culture.  The  supreme  authority  of  the  church  began  to 
grow  less ;  science,  literature,  and  philosophy  began  to  engage 
the  attention  of  men.  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio  lived 
and  thought  and  wrote.  The  fall  of  Constantinople  into  the 
power  of  the  Turkish  empire  turned  westward  a  stream  of 
Greek  influence,  and,  lastly,  the  invention  of  printing  bore 
from  one  nation  to  another  thought  and  knowledge,  which 
evoked  emulation.  Art  felt  the  awakening ;  the  demand 
for  painting  grew  steadily,  and  as  people  thought  and  studied 
they  felt  the  restrictions,  the  sad  limitations  of  the  work  that 


18  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

was  being  produced.  They  could  see  the  untruthfulness 
to  nature,  the  lack  of  life  and  expression  in  the  Byzantine 
representations,  and,  in  response  to  the  demand,  better 
paintings  began  to  be  produced. 

EVOLUTION   OF   ITALIAN   PAINTING. 

The  growth  of  painting  in  Italy  is  more  truly  an  evolution 
than  in  any  other  country. 

It  began  in  the  first  slight  endeavor  to  improve  Greek 
Byzantine  painting ;  by  the  turning  of  a  head,  by  the  change 
from  round,  staring  eyes  to  narrow,  faintly  expressive  ones, 
by  a  little  modification  of  drapery,  by  more  truth  in  color, 
etc.  Any  change,  however  slight,  gave  evidence  of  life  and 
beginning  growth. 

The  earliest  period,  from  about  1250  to  1400,  is  called 
the  Gothic  period ;  that  from  about  1400  to  1500,  the  Early 
Renaissance;  that  from  about  150010  1600,  the  High  Renais- 
sance; and  after  that,  the  Decadence. 

Italian  painting  during  the  Gothic  period  was  wholly  in 
the  service  of  the  church,  and  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
existing  examples  are  frescoes  on  the  walls  of  churches. 
Everything  was  painted  in  fresco *  or  in  tempera.  The  sub- 
jects are  Bible  scenes,  and  although  occasionally  a  portrait 
was  painted,  yet  it  was  always  as  a  part  of  some  religious 
picture.  Everything  at  first  was  strongly  Byzantine  in  char- 
acter, but  a  steady  growth  toward  the  study  of  nature  is  seen 
during  this  period. 

The  Early  Renaissance  witnessed  a  new  impulse  of  growth. 
Artists  began  to  study  nature  and  antique  works  of  art. 
The  human  figure  with  all  its  vitality  engaged  their  attention. 
The  field  of  art  visibly  broadened.  Although  a  large  pro- 
portion of  painting  was  still  devoted  to  the  church,  some 

1  See  "  Definitions,"  p.  xi. 


BEGINNINGS  OF  MODERN  PAINTING.  19 

of  it  was  secular.  The  subjects  were  Bible  scenes,  nature, 
the  antique,  history,  portraits,  and  mythology.  Fresco  and 
tempera  were  the  mediums  used  during  the  former  half  of 
this  period  ;  oil  painting  was  gradually  introduced  during 
the  latter  half. 

The  High  Renaissance  was  the  period  which  carried  on 
to  perfection  all  that  which  had  hitherto  been  attempted. 
In  it  every  law  underlying  pictorial  representation  had  been 
mastered  ;  drawing,  composition,  color,  all  were  perfect 
when  rendered  by  the  hands  of  the  greatest  masters  of  this 
period.  The  whole  world  of  nature,  of  mythology,  of  imagi- 
nation, of  history,  and  of  religion  afforded  subjects.  Oil 
painting  was  practised  generally. 

During  the  period  of  Decadence,  the  high  motives1  which  had 
actuated  Italian  artists  hitherto  grew  less  powerful.  There 
seemed  to  be  no  greater  heights  to  climb.  Religion  had  lost 
its  supremacy.  There  was  less  intellectual  activity,  less  desire 
for  study  and  noble  endeavor.  Art  had  begun  to  be  practised 
for  art's  sake  only,  and  nothing  but  degeneracy  was  possible. 

CHIEF  ITALIAN  SCHOOLS.  The  chief  Italian  Schools  of  Painting 
are  Florentine  (or  Tuscan),  Siennese,  Roman  (or  Umbriati), 
Paduan,  Venetian,  Ferrarese,  Lombard,  Bolognese,  and  School 
of  the  Naturalists. 

List  of  most  important  Italian  painters,  grouped  according 
to  the  periods  to  which  they  belong. 

GOTHIC  PERIOD  (about  1250-1400). 

FLORENTINE  (OR  TUSCAN)  SCHOOL.  Cimabue,  Giotto,  Taddeo 
Gaddi,  Andrea  da  Firenze,  Orcagna,  Spinello  Aretino,  Fra 
Angelica,  Andrea  del  Castagno,  Uccello,  Domenico  Veneziano. 

SIENNESE  SCHOOL.  Guido  da  Sienna,  Duccio,  Simone  Martini, 
Lippo  Memmi,  Lorenzetti  Brothers. 

1  See  "Technical  Terms  Used  in  Painting,"  p.  258. 


20  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

EARLY  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD  (about  1400-1500). 

FLORENTINE  (OR  TUSCAN)  SCHOOL.  Masolino,  Masaccio, 
Benozzo  Gozzoli,  Fra  Filippo  Lippi,  Sandra  Botticelli, 
Ghirlandjo,  Filippino  Lippi,  Cosimo  Roselli,  Piero  di 
Cosimo,  Pollajuoli  Brothers,  Luca  Signorelli,  Andrea 
Verrocchio,  Lorenzi  di  Credi. 

ROMAN  (OR  UMBRIAN)  SCHOOL.  Gentile  da  Fabriano,  Pietro 
della  Francesca,  Melozzo  da  Forli,  Perugino,  Pinturricchio, 
Lo  Spagna. 

PADUAN  SCHOOL.  Francesco  Squarcione,  Andrea  Mantegna, 
Bartolommeo  Montagna. 

VENETIAN  SCHOOL.  Vivarini  Brothers,  Carlo  Crivelli,  Jacopo 
Bellini,  Gentile  and  Giovanni  Bellini,  Antonella  da  Messina, 
Vittore  Carpaccio,  Cima  da  Conegliano,  Alvise  Vivarini. 

FERRARESE  SCHOOL.  Cosimo  Tura,  Francesco  Cossa,  Lorenzo 
Costa,  Francesco  Bianchi. 

LOMBARD  SCHOOL.     Vincenzo  Foppa,  Bramantino,  Borgognone. 
BOLOGNESE  SCHOOL.     Francia. 

HIGH  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD  (about  1500-1600). 

FLORENTINE  (OR  TUSCAN)  SCHOOL.  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Fra 
Bartolommeo,  Albertinelli,  Michael  Angela,  Daniele  da 
Volterra,  Andrea  del  Sarto. 

SIENNESE  SCHOOL.     II  Sodoma. 

ROMAN  (OR  UMBRIAN)  SCHOOL.    Raphael,  Giulio  Romano. 

VENETIAN  SCHOOL.  Giorgione,  Sebastian  del  Piombo,  Titian, 
Palma  Vecchio,  Lorenzo  Lotto,  Tintoretto,  Paul  Veronese. 

FERRARESE  SCHOOL.  Dosso  Dossi,  Garofalo,  Correggio,  Par- 
migiano. 

LOMBARD  SCHOOL.  Andrea  Solario,  Bernardino  Luini,  Gau- 
denzio  Ferrari. 

BOLOGNESE  SCHOOL.     Timoteo  Viti. 


BEGINNINGS  OF  MODERN  PAINTING.  21 

DECADENCE  PERIOD  (about  1600 ). 

VENETIAN  SCHOOL.  Jacopo  Palma  (II  Giovine),  Gian  Battista 
Tiepolo,  Pietro  Longhi. 

BOLOGNESE  SCHOOL.  The  Carracci,  Domenichino,  Guido  Reni, 
Francesco  Albani,  Guercino,  Cristofano  Allori,  Carlo  Dolci, 
Lanfranco,  Schedone. 

SCHOOL  OF  THE  NATURALISTS.  Caravaggio,  Lo  Spagnoletto, 
Salvator  Rosa. 


CHAPTER   III. 

ITALIAN    PAINTING. 


FLORENTINE   OR   TUSCAN   SCHOOL. 
GOTHIC  PERIOD,  1250-1400. 

THIS  school,  whose  centre  was  the  city  of  Florence,  is  the 
first  that  won  distinction,  and  is,  perhaps,  most  important  in 
Italian  painting. 

Characteristics.  —  Early  subjects,  wholly  religious  ;  later, 
classic  themes  were  introduced  ;  expressive,  idealistic,  and 
severe  ;  great  attention  paid  to  the  human  figure,  in  which 
it  excelled  after  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century ;  draw- 
ing and  composition  more  important  than  color,  which  is  cool 
and  simple. 

Cimabue  (1240-1302),  born  in  Florence,  is  the  first  painter 
who  won  fame  by  decidedly  improving  the  Byzantine  style, 
although  Margaritone  (1216-  about  1290),  of  Arezzo,  whose 
work  may  be  seen  in  Santa  Croce,  Florence,  and  National 
Gallery,  London,  gave  a  faint  expression  to  the  Byzantine 
forms  he  so  faithfully  copied. 

Cimabue  was  of  noble  birth  and  was  a  friend  of  Dante, 
whom  legend  declares  to  have  been  at  one  time  his  pupil. 
He  was  an  ambitious  man,  a  believer  in  himself,  and  scorn- 
ful of  others'  criticism  ;  hence  was  fitted  to  take  his  place 
as  a  pioneer,  and  was  able  to  make  his  work  of  worth  to 
mankind. 

His  style  of  drawing  and  painting  is  very  like  that  of  his 

22 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  23 

predecessors.  His  pictures  are  Byzantine  in  character,  thor- 
oughly stiff  in  composition,  painted  on  flat  gold  backgrounds. 
The  high  lights  and  drapery  folds  are  indicated  by  gold. 
There  is  little  knowledge  of  foreshortening  or  anatomy 
shown.  The  figures  are  destitute  of  proper  proportions,  and 
the  hands  and  feet  impossible.  There  is,  however,  a  certain 
life  infused  into  his  work  —  an  expression,  a  feeling  after 
the  truths  of  nature,  that  had  been  wholly  wanting  for 
centuries. 

He  gave  a  slight  turn  to  the  head,  avoided  the  round, 
staring  eyes,  but  went  to  the  other  extreme  by  making  them 
very  long  and  narrow,  and  gave  a  faint  expression  to  his 
faces. 

He  also  changed  somewhat  the  old  stereotyped  system  of 
color,  and  gave  more  warmth  to  the  flesh  tints. 

The  Florentine  people  received  his  pictures  with  great  joy. 
One  of  them,  a  "  Madonna  and  Christ-Child,"  was  borne 
from  his  studio  without  the  city,  through  the  streets  of 
Florence,  by  a  festive  procession,  with  music  and  banners, 
and  placed  in  the  Rucellai  Chapel  of  Santa  Maria  Novella, 
where  it  still  remains.  It  is  painted  on  a  wooden  panel 
in  tempera.  Existing  works  by  Cimabue  are  rare.  These 
are  : 

"  Madonna  and  Child."     Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence. 

"  Madonna  and  Child."     Academy,  Florence. 

"  Madonna  and  Child."     Louvre,  Paris. 

Frescoes  representing  scripture  scenes.     Church  of  St.  Francis, 

Assisi  (doubtful). 
"  Madonna  and  Child."     National  Gallery,  London  (doubtful). 

Giotto  di  Bondone  (1276-1336),  born  in  Vespignano,  a  few 
miles  from  Florence,  is  the  greatest  name  in  early  Italian 
art,  and,  because  of  his  influence,  must  be  ranked  high 
among  the  painters  of  all  ages. 


24  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

He  was  a  protege  and  pupil  of  Cimabue.  The  story  of 
their  meeting  is  interesting  :  Giotto,  a  shepherd  boy,  while 
tending  his  father's  sheep,  often  amused  himself  by  drawing 
them  on  the  ground  with  a  pointed  stone.  One  day  he  was 
surprised  in  this  act  by  Cimabue,  who,  attracted  by  the  boy, 
asked  him  to  go  to  the  city  and  live  with  him.  Thus  Giotto's 
art  life  began. 

The  advance  which  Giotto  wrought  in  painting  may  be 
explained  by  the  fact  that  he  was  gifted  with  a  -love  for  the 
art  of  representation,  with  a  keenness  of  observation,  and  with 
a  bold  disregard  of  traditions  that  enabled  him  to  develop 
rapidly  the  spirit  of  change  and  growth  in  art  that  had 
already  begun.  He  was  a  personal  friend  of  Dante,  and 
such  an  intimacy  must  have  strengthened  his  conceptions  of 
spiritual  truths.  His  life  was  crowded  with  work.  We  read 
that  he  gathered  about  himself  a  large  number  of  pupils,  or 
followers,  and  journeyed  into  many  of  the  Italian  cities, 
leaving  in  each  some  pictures  to  tell  of  his  visit. 

Few  other  painters  have  exerted  so  great  an  influence  as 
did  Giotto.  So  far  beyond  all  others  of  his  time  was  he, 
that  no  real  advance  on  his  work  was  made  for  almost  a 
hundred  years  after  he  lived. 

Characteristics.  —  In  studying  Giotto's  works  we  are  at  first 
struck  by  his  originality  of  invention.  He  attempted  many 
representations  of  scriptural  scenes  and  occurrences  in  the 
lives  of  saints,  that  had  never  before  been  thought  of,  while 
those  that  had  before  been  pictured  he  treated  in  a  wholly 
new  manner.  He  seems  to  have  always  shunned  the  old 
spirit  of  imitation. 

He  possessed  a  strong  feeling  for  the  dramatic,  and 
employed  many  people  to  illustrate  his  story,  introducing 
shepherds,  servants,  and  even  domestic  animals.  He  linked 
the  two  interests,  human  and  divine,  by  thus  introducing 
common,  everyday  incidents  into  his  pictures,  and,  there- 


ITALIAN  PAINTING. 


25 


fore,  he  spoke  to  the  hearts  of  the  people  who  had  before 
seen  only  the  dreary  monastic  representations  of  the  preced- 
ing centuries.  He  wrought  a  wonderful  change  in  composi- 
tion. Before  him  figures  had  been  put  in  rows  one  above 


11 


GIOTTO.    PIBTA.'OR  MOURNING  OVBR  THE  DEAD  CHRIST.    ARENA  CHAPEL,  PADUA. 

another,  with  little  thought  of   connection   between  them. 
Giotto  placed  them  in  groups. 

He  drew  his  figures  with  a  somewhat  flexible  movement, 
and  introduced  simple  draperies  falling  in  straight  folds 
from  the  shoulders  to  or  below  the  feet.  His  bodies  are 
short  and  sturdy,  his  eyes  are  long  and  narrow  (though  much 
less  so  than  those  by  Cimabue),  and  placed  rather  close 
together,  and  his  chins  are  rounded  and  massive.  His  faces 


26  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

express  fleeting  emotions,  that  is,  they  smile  and  grieve,  look 
angry  or  loving.  He  never  arrived  at  beauty,  but  only  at 
the  expression  of  some  feeling. 

He  abandoned  the  Byzantine  manner  of  painting  on  a 
hard  gold  background,  with  colors  thick  and  heavy,  without 
any  attempt  at  harmony  or  truth.  He  studied  nature,  and 
so  we  find  his  pictured  people  out  in  the  open  air,  under  the 
blue  sky,  with  rocks  and  trees  and  grass  about  them,  and 
dressed  in  fresh  bright  colors. 

His  technical  representation,  of  course,  falls  far  short  of 
his  design,  because  the  laws  of  perspective,  foreshortening, 
etc.,  were  all  unknown. 

He  could  not  draw  his  figures  properly,  and  used  often 
to  put  shoes  and  long  draperies  on  his  men  and  women 
rather  than  attempt  to  draw  their  feet,  and  could  never  make 
his  figures  look  flat  when  he  represented  them  as  lying 
down. 

His  landscapes  also  were  nothing  but  most  imperfect  and 
crude  suggestions  of  the  truth,  but  these  are  little  things 
compared  with  the  spirit  and  invention  of  his  pictures  and 
the  changes  he  wrought. 

Most  of  his  painting  is  in  fresco. 

Most  important  works  : 

FRESCOES.     "  Meeting  of  St.  Joachim  and  St.  Anna,"  "  Birth  of 

the  Virgin."     Cloisters  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence. 
Series  of  frescoes   illustrating  scenes  in  Life  of  St.  Francis  of 

Assisi.     Bardi  Chapel,  Santa  Croce,  Florence. 
Series  of  frescoes  illustrating  Lives  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  and 

St.   John   the    Evangelist.      Peruzzi   Chapel,    Santa   Croce, 

Florence. 

These  two  series  in  Santa  Croce  were  covered  by  white- 
wash about  a  century  after  Giotto's  death,  and  were  not 
completely  uncovered  until.  1863.  The  result  of  giving  them 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  27 

back  to  the  world  of  art  has  been  to  awaken  a  great  enthusi- 
asm with  regard  to  Giotto  and  his  work. 

Series  of  about  forty  frescoes  illustrating  scenes  in  Lives  of  our 
Saviour,  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  St.  Anna.  Arena  Chapel,  Padua. 
FRESCOES.     Church  of  St.  Francis,  Assisi. 

Recent  criticism  has  cast  much  doubt  on  the  authorship 
of  the  injured  frescoes  in  the  Chapel  of  the  Bargello,  Flor- 
ence, which  were  formerly  attributed  to  Giotto.  Here  is  the 
celebrated  portrait  of  Dante  walking  in  Paradise,  so  often 
reproduced. 

These  were  probably  painted  by  one  of  Giotto's  pupils 
after  the  master's  death. 

Taddeo  Gaddi  (1300-  about  1366)  is  the  most  important  of 
Giotto's  pupils.  He  imitated  Giotto  very  closely,  though  he 
never  equalled  him.  Indeed,  the  great  number  of  Giotto's 
pupils  were  always  behind  their  master  in  the  best  qualities 
of  his  art. 

Gaddi's  early  work  is  his  best,  showing  how  much  he 
owed  to  the  direct  influence  of  Giotto. 

He  differed  from  his  master  in  the  length  and  attenuation 
that  he  often  gave  to  the  limbs  of  his  figures,  while  the 
hands  and  feet  are  short  and  coarse. 

Some  of  his  best  work  shows  a  fine  feeling. 
Many  frescoes  formerly  attributed  to  this  artist  are  now 
lost.     Existing  works  are : 
Frescoes   illustrating   scenes   in   the    Life   of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

Baroncelli  Chapel,  Santa  Croce,  Florence. 

Frescoes  illustrating  scenes  in  the  Life  of  Christ.  Spanish  chapel, 
Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence.  These  have  been  attributed 
without  question,  until  very  recently,  to  Gaddi.  At  present 
critics  are  divided  in  opinion ;  some  still  claim  them  to  be 
his,  while  others  think  they  were  designed  l  by  him  but  painted 
by  an  inferior  artist. 

1  See  '•  Technical  Terms  Used  in  Painting,"  p.  257. 


28  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Agnolo  Gaddi  (about  1333-  about  1396),  son  of  Taddeo 
Gaddi,  painted  frescoes  similar  in  character  to  those  by  his 
father. 

Examples  of  frescoes  are  in  the  choir  of  Santa  Croce,  Florence  ; 
some  panel  pictures  in  tempera  are  in  Florence  Academy. 

Andrea  da  Firenze  (dates  of  life  unknown  ;  was  working 
1377)  is  another  of  Giotto's  followers  whose  work  resembles 
that  of  Taddeo  Gaddi. 

Modern  critics  attribute  to  this  painter  important  frescoes  in 
the  Spanish  chapel,  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence,  which  hitherto 
have  been  ascribed  to  Simone  Martini. 

It  has  been  learned,  by  a  recently  discovered  receipt  of  pay- 
ment dated  1377,  that  this  artist  also  painted  the  upper  series  of 
frescoes  illustrating  scenes  in  the  life  of  San  Ranieri  in  the  Campo 
Santo  of  Pisa.  These  have  also  hitherto  been  ascribed  to  Simone 
Martini. 

Orcagna  (Andrea  di  Cione  :  exact  dates  of  life  unknown ; 
was  painting  probably  from  1340-1375)  was  painter,  sculp- 
tor, and  architect.  He  is  distinguished  as  being  one  of  the 
most  noted  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Giotto.  It  is, 
however,  believed  that  he  never  knew  that  master  personally. 

In  composition  he  advanced  beyond  Giotto. 

His  figures  show  a  greater  sense  of  beauty  and  proportion. 
His  color  was  rendered  softer  and  more  harmonious  by  his 
study  of  the  Siennese  masters  (Chap.  VI),  from  whom  also 
he  learned  to  engraft  a  tenderness  of  expression  upon  the 
stern  simplicity  of  the  Giottesque  School. 

His  paintings  are  among  the  masterpieces  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  These  are : 

A  fine  altar-piece  and  large  frescoes  representing  the  "  Last  Judg- 
ment "  and  "  Paradise  "  (accounted  his  best  work).  Strozzi 
Chapel,  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence. 

"  San  Zenobio  Enthroned."     Cathedral,  Florence. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  29 

FRESCOES.     Medici  Chapel,  Santa  Croce,  Florence. 
"  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  "  (from  Church  San  Piero  Maggiore, 
Florence).     National  Gallery,  London. 

In  the  Campo  Santo  of  Pisa  are  two  very  notable  frescoes, 
"The  Last  Judgment"  and  "Triumph  of  Death,"  which, 
on  authority  of  Vasari,  have  for  centuries  been  ascribed  to 
Orcagna.  Recent  criticism  has  determined  that  the  old  his- 
torian was  mistaken,  but  authorities  differ  regarding  the 
authorship  of  the  pictures.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  advance 
the  opinion  that  they  were  painted  by  the  Lorenzetti  brothers, 
Sienna  (Siennese  School),  while  Milanesi  thinks  they  are 
the  work  of  one  Bernardo  Daddi,  a  Florentine.  Probably 
the  question  will  never  be  satisfactorily  settled. 

Spinello  Aretino  (about  1333-1410),  born  in  Arezzo,  is  the 
last  great  painter  of  the  Giottesque  School. 

His  painting,  like  that  of  Orcagna,  shows  both  Florentine 
and  Siennese  influence. 

Most  important  works  : 

Series  of  frescoes   illustrating  scenes  in  Life  of   St.   Benedict. 

Sacristy  of  San  Miniato,  Florence. 
Frescoes  illustrating  Lives  of  St.  Efeso  and  St.  Potito.     Campo 

Santo,  Pisa. 

FRESCOES.     Palazzo  Pubblico,  Sienna. 
Fragments   of    fresco   (from    S.   Maria    degli   Angeli,    Arezzo). 

National  Gallery,  London. 

Don  Lorenzo  Monaco  (about  1370-1422),  born  in  Sienna, 
was  a  monk  and  belonged  to  the  monastery  called  degli 
Angioli,  in  Florence. 

He  united  with  the  realism  of  the  school  of  Giotto  much 
of  the  idealism  and  religious  fervor  of  expression  for  which 
Fra  Angelico  (his  contemporary)  is  noted. 

His  execution  is  very  tender  and  careful  ;  his  color  pure 
and  harmonious. 


30  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

He  occasionally  attempted  to  paint  nude  figures,  and 
these  are,  of  course,  very  unlifelike. 

He  improved  upon  the  landscape  backgrounds  of  his 
predecessors,  for  some  of  his  show  a  close  study  of  natural 
detail. 

Only  a  few  of  his  pictures  remain  : 

"  Coronation  of  the  Virgin."  Hall  of  Lorenzo  Monaco,  Uffizi 
Gallery,  Florence.  This  picture  contains  more  than  a 
hundred  figures. 

"  Virgin  and  Child  with  Saints,"  "  Adoration  of  the  Kings." 
Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  Annunciation."     Florence  Academy. 

Fra  Angelico  (Giovanni  Guido,  1387-1455),  often  called 
//  Beato  (The  Blessed)  by  the  Italians,  was  for  about  thirty 
years  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of  San  Marco,  Florence. 
He  took  little  heed  of  the  growth  of  art  about  him  and 
clung  to  the  quaint  stiffness  of  the  preceding  century,  but  he 
infused  into  the  old  method  of  expression  a  peculiar  beauty 
from  his  own  nature.  His  name  owes  its  high  rank  among 
the  painters  of  his  time  to  the  religious  sentiment  of  his 
work.  It  is  this  that  earned  for  him  the  name  of  Angelico. 
He  began  all  his  painting  with  prayer,  and  then,  believing 
that  everything  he  accomplished  was  the  direct  result  of 
divine  inspiration,  would  not  suffer  himself  to  make  any 
alterations. 

Characteristics.  —  His  most  frequent  subjects  represent  the 
lowliness  of  soul  of  God's  servants  and  the  devout  beauty 
of  angels.  He  was  behind  Giotto  in  composition,  in  force 
of  expression,  and  in  chiaroscuro.  He  excelled  him  in 
tenderness  of  expression. 

This  expression  is  centered  in  his  faces,  which  possess 
a  rapt  beauty  that  is  distinctively  characteristic  of  the 
artist. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  31 

His  figures  are  peculiarly  quiet ;  many  have  passive,  folded 
hands.  The  motion  of  his  angels,  dancing  in  Paradise,  is  a 
most  gentle  motion,  which  in  no  wise  disturbs  the  draperies. 

His  execution  is  elaborate,  sometimes  almost  miniature- 


FRA  ANGBLICO.    ANNUNCIATION.     MUSBUM,  SAN  MARCO,  FLORENCE. 

like  in  delicacy.  His  coloring  is  most  pure  and  simple  and 
has  been  little  affected  by  time. 

He  could  in  no  wise  picture  evil ;  when  he  attempted  to 
do  so,  as  in  his  evil  spirits  in  "  Last  Judgment,"  the  result 
is  comical.  His  latest  works  in  Orvieto  and  Rome  show  the 
influence  of  the  dawning  Renaissance  in  a  better  drawing  of 
the  figure. 

Most  important  works  : 

FRESCOES.      San    Marco,    Florence.       This   monastery   is   now 
simply  a  museum  of   Fra  Angelico's  works.     Each  of   the 


32  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

nearly  forty  cells,  formerly  occupied  by  monks  contains  a 
fresco  painted  by  him,  while  others  are  on  the  walls  of 
corridors  and  various  apartments. 

"  Last  Judgment."     Florence  Academy. 

"  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  "  Madonna  and  Child."  Uffizi 
Gallery,  Florence.  On  the  wide,  flat,  gold  frame  surround- 
ing the  latter  picture  are  the  twelve  angels  with  musical 
instruments  which  are  so  widely  known,  either  reproduced 
in  color  on  gilded  panels,  or  by  photographs. 

"Christ,  Angels,  Saints,  and  Prophets."     Orvieto  Cathedral. 

Frescoes  representing  scenes  in  Lives  of  St.  Stephen  and  St. 
Laurence.  Vatican,  Rome. 

"  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  "  Crucifixion."     Louvre,  Paris. 

Predella1  of  altar-piece  (from  Church  $an  Domejiico,  Florence). 
National  Gallery,  London. 

Andrea  del  Castagno  (1390-1457)  painted  pictures  full  of 
force  and  energy,  which  give  evidence  of  considerable  study 
of  the  human  figure  in  the  nude.  They  are  unattractive  in 
design  and  color,  but  mark  a  step  in  the  gradual  evolution  of 
Florentine  art,  since  each  figure  seems  instinct  with  indi- 
vidual character. 

His  best  work  is  in  the  convent  of  S.  Apollonia  in  Florence, 
where  are  powerful  portraits  of  great  Italians  (Dante,  Petrarch, 
and  Boccaccio  among  them)  and  a  "  Last  Supper,"  which 
authorities  claim  to  have  influenced  Leonardo  da  Vinci  in  his 
rendering  of  the  same  subject. 

Quite  a  number  of  his  paintings  are  in  the  Florence  Academy. 

Paolo  Uccello  (Paolo  di  Dono,  1397-1475),  called  Uccello 
on  account  of  his  love  for  birds,  is  chiefly  famous  for  his 
mastery  of  the  science  of  linear  perspective.  His  devotion 
to  this  study  was  so  great  that  Vasari  says  he  would  often 
neither  eat  nor  sleep,  and  when  remonstrated  with  by  his  wife, 
would  only  reply,  "  Oh  1  this  delightful  perspective  !  "  The 

1  Horizontal  panel  at  base  of  the  upright  panels  of  an  altar-piece. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  33 

knowledge  gained  and  put  into  practice  by  him  was  a  great 
help  to  contemporary  artists. 

His  works  are  marked  by  much  stiffness  and  exact  draw- 
ing of  detail,  and  by  figures  so  designed  as  to  exhibit  to  the 
fullest  extent  his  knowledge  of  mathematical  foreshortening. 

Existing  works  are  rare. 

FRESCOES.     Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence. 

Equestrian  Portrait  of  Sir  John  Hawkwood.    Cathedral,  Florence. 

Battle-pieces.     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence  ;  Louvre,  Paris ;  National 

Gallery,  London. 
A  famous   panel  attributed   to    Uccello,  containing   portraits  of 

Giotto,  Brunelleschi,  Donatello,  Uccello,  and  Manetti,  is  in 

the  Louvre,  Paris. 

Domenico  Veneziano  ( 1461),  possibly  born  in  Venice, 

belongs  to  the  same  group  of  artists  as  Castagno  and  Uccello, 
men  whose  advanced  study  of  nature  helped  to  prepare  the 
way  for  the  greater  masters  to  follow. 

During  four  centuries  Castagno,  on  Vasari's  authority,  bore 
the  terrible  accusation  of  having  been  the  murderer  of  Venezi- 
ano through  envy  of  the  praises  bestowed  on  the  latter  because 
of  the  beautiful  results  of  his  painting  in  the  oil  medium,  which 
at  this  time  was  being  gradually  introduced  into  Italy. 

It  has,  however,  been  conclusively  proved  that  Veneziano 
did  not  die  until  several  years  after  his  alleged  murderer. 

Very  few  pictures  by  Veneziano  are  now  in  existence,  and 
none  in  oils,  although  records  show  that  he  did  freely  use 
this  medium.  His  works  are  : 

Altar-piece,  "  Madonna  and  Child,"  in  tempera.  Uffizi  Gallery, 
Florence. 

"  Madonna  and  Child."  Two  Heads  of  Monks,  in  fresco.  Na- 
tional Gallery,  London. 

Signor  Morelli  claims  for  Veneziano  the  frescoes  of  St  Francis 
and  St.  John  the  Baptist  (usually  attributed  to  Castagno),  in 
Santa  Croce,  Florence. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

ITALIAN    PAINTING. 


FLORENTINE   OR   TUSCAN   SCHOOL   (Continued}. 

\T  /        \ 

EARLY  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  100-1500.  K^ 


V 
/X 


Masolino  (1383-  probably  1447),  called  da  Pamcale  from 
the  place  of  his  birth,  was  sculptor  as  well  as  painter.  His 
works  give  evidence  of  a  careful  observation  of  nature,  are 
truthful  in  drawing  and  modelling,  and  show  a  knowledge  of 
linear  perspective.  They  possess  a  certain  dramatic  group- 
ing of  figures.  His  costumes  are  evidently  realistic  studies 
from  those  of  his  time.  He  is  the  natural  precursor  of 
Masaccio. 

There  has  been  much  controversy  among  critics  regarding 
the  works  attributed  to  Masolino.  Those  only  which  are 
absolutely  beyond  dispute,  because  signed  by  the  painter, 
are  : 

Frescoes  on  the  walls  of  the  church  of  Castiglione  d'  Olona, 
near  Milan.  In  the  choir  of  this  church  are  pictures  representing 
scenes  in  the  Lives  of  the  Virgin,  St.  Laurence,  and  St.  Stephen, 
while  in  the  Baptistery  are  scenes  in  the  Life  of  St.  John  and 
figures  of  the  four  Evangelists. 

In  the  famous  series  of  frescoes  in  Brancacci  Chapel,  Santa 
Maria  del  Carmine,  Florence,  are  three,  "  Healing  of  the  Cripple," 
"  Raising  of  Tabitha,"  "  Fall  of  Adam  and  Eve,"  which  the 
chief  weight  of  authority  to-day  attributes  to  Masolino,  although 
some  careful  critics  (notably  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle)  refuse  to 
acknowledge  them  as  his. 

34 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  35 

In  a  chapel  of  San  Clemente,  Rome,  are  frescoes  representing 
scenes  in  the  Lives  of  St.  Clement  and  St.  Catherine  of  Alexandria, 
etc.,  which  were  formerly  attributed  to  Masaccio,  and  which  are 
now  recognized  as  being  the  work  of  Masolino. 

'MasiCCio  (Tommaso  Guidi,  1401-1428),  the  greatest  mas- 
ter in  the  history  of  modern  art  after  Giotto,  was  born  in 
San  Giovanni,  in  the  Val  d'  Arno.  The  name  Masaccio,  which 
means  Slovenly  Tom,  was  given  him  on  account  of  his 
careless  personal  habits.  When  a  young  boy,  Masaccio 
came  to  Florence,  where  he  made  careful  studies  of  the 
sculptures  by  Lorenzo^^hiberti^  on  the  bronze_gates^of  _the_ 
Baptistery.  He  was  enrolled  in  the  city  guild  of  painters  in 
1424  ;  and  there  is  an  old  story,  never  disproved,  that  he 
died  by  poison  in  Rome  in  1428. 

During  his  short  life  Masaccio  made  an  almost  phenome- 
nal advance  in  painting  ;  an  advance  that  can  be  satisfac- 
torily explained  only  by  the  theory  that  Masolino  painted 
the  three  frescoes  in  the  Brancacci  Chapel,  above  spoken  of, 
and  thus  was  Masaccio's  teacher. 

Characteristics. — The  conventionalities  that  had  hitherto 
clung  to  all  pictured  works  were  wholly  dropped  by 
Masaccio.  His  drawing  of  the  human  figure  (tested  by 
several  nude  figures  in  his  pictures)  is  masterly.  He  puts 
animation  and  variety  of  expression  into  both  figures  and 
faces. 

In  his  work  real  life  for  the  first  time  becomes  the  serious 
subject.  The  incident  illustrated  is  simply  a  pretext  for  the 
portrayal  of  reality.  While  Giotto  sought  for  the  best  means 
of  telling  the  story  selected  as  his  subject,  Masaccio  sought, 
seemingly,  a  fitting  incident  which,  as  a  theme,  would  enable 
him  to  portray  most  forcibly  the  characters  he  chose  to 
represent.  As  a  general  thing  there  are  only  a  few  people 
in  his  principal  group,  but  many  others  are  standing  about, 
each  of  whom  possesses  distinct  personality. 


36 


THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


This  study  of  individual  character  appears  in  the  work  of 
no  earlier  master,  and  was  of  great  importance  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  Italian  painting.  It  marks  the  beginning  of  the  tend- 
ency towards  the  predominance  of  the  artistic  treatment 

of  a  picture  over  its 
subject,  and  its  inevit- 
able end  was  to  throw 
out  the  purely  devo- 
tional aim  which  had 
before  characterized 
painting.  Masaccio 
made  a  great  advance 
in  both  linear  and  aerial 
perspective;  his  figures 
are  phced  firmly  on 
different  planes  in  the 
same  composition.  His 
color  is  agreeable  and 
harmonious. 

His    only    authentic 
works  are : 

FRESCOES.  "  Expulsion 
from  Paradise,"  "  The 
Tribute  Money," 
"  Peter  Baptizing  the 
People  "  (in  which  is 
the  celebrated  naked 
youth  trembling  with  the  cold),  "  Preaching  of  Peter," 
"  Peter  and  John  Healing  the  Sick,"  "  Peter  and  John  Dis- 
tributing Alms,"  "Resurrection  of  the  Child  by  Peter'" 
(begun  by  Masaccio).  Brancacci  Chapel,  Santa  Maria 
del  Carmine,  Florence. 

Masaccio's  early  death  prevented  his  completion  of  the 
last  painting,  and  it  was  finished  by  Filippino  Lippi. 


MASACCIO.    ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  JOHN  BESTOW- 
ING ALMS.    BRANCACCI  CHAPEL,  SANTA 
MARIA  DEL  CARMINE,  FLORENCE. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  37 

These  frescoes  were  studied  by  the  greatest  masters  of 
the  Renaissance  —  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Michael  Angelo,  and 
Raphael. 

Another  almost  obliterated  fresco  by  Masaccio  is  in  the  cloisters 
of  Santa  Maria  del  Carmine. 

Benozzo  Gozzoli  (1420-1498)  was  a  pupil  of  Fra  Angelico, 
whom  he  assisted  in  his  work  in  the  Cathedral  at  Orvieto, 
and  whose  style  of  painting  he  at  first  quite  faithfully 
followed. 

His  early  pictures  show  much  of  the  tender  grace  and 
ideal  beauty  of  Angelico.  Later  he  was  influenced  by  the 
works  of  Masaccio,  and,  turning  wholly  from  the  ideality  of 
his  former  master,  seems  to  have  revelled  in  the  study  of 
nature  and  real  life.  His  landscape  backgrounds  are  filled 
with  villas,  trees,  vines,  fruit,  and  flowers,  and  are  animated 
with  herds  of  cattle,  deer,  hares,  dogs,  and  birds. 

He  loved  to  tell  stories  by  his  pictures,  and  introduced 
many  portraits,  some  of  which  are  admirably  treated  ;  in- 
deed, so  close  to  nature  is  much  of  his  painting  of  portrait 
heads,  that  by  some  writers  he  has  been  called  the  "  Floren- 
tine Holbein." 

His  drawing  is,  however,  sometimes  very  careless,  and 
there  is  a  striking  inequality  of  merit  in  his  works. 

Most  important  works  : 

Gozzoli's  first  style  of  painting  may  be  seen  in  figures  of  apostles 

and  martyrs  included  in  the   Fra  Angelico  frescoes  in  the 

Cathedral  at  Orvieto. 
A  charming  altar-piece  in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  reminds 

one  of  Angelico. 
His  later  method  of  work  is  seen  in  frescoes  in  the  chapel  of  the 

Riccardi  Palace  (formerly  the  palace  of  the  Medici),  Florence. 
A  very  important   series  of  frescoes  is  in  the  chapel  of  Sant' 

Agostino,  San  Gemignano  ;  also  in  the  menasteries  of  San 

Francesco  and  San  Fortunato,  Montefalco. 


38  THE  WORLD'S' PAINTERS. 

Most  important  of  all  are  his  frescoes  in  the  Campo  Santo  at 
Pisa.  These  (twenty-two  in  number)  comprise  a  series  of  scenes 
from  the  Old  Testament,  beginning  with  Noah  and  ending  with 
Joseph.  The  artist  thronged  these  pictures  with  spirited  figures, 
using  for  backgrounds  landscapes  and  masses  of  architecture  ; 
and,  by  the  overflowing  life  of  the  scenes,  he  causes  the  beholder 
almost  to  forget  the  Bible  incidents  portrayed. 

JTra  Filippo  Lippi  (about  1406-1469),  the  monk  to  whose 
name  so  much  of  romance  and  scandal  clings,  was  influenced 
by  both  Fra  Angelico  and  Masaccio,  and  blended  the  ideal 
of  the  one  with  the  real  of  the  other.  He  is  by  no  means 
so  noted  as  Angelico  or  Masaccio.  His  works  are  easily 
recognizable. 

Characteristics.  —  His  pictures  are  not  marked  by  any 
especial  devotional  feeling,  but  are  attractive  on  account  of 
a  certain  stately  composition,  pleasing  human  faces,  and 
a  fine  golden  color. 

The  type  of  his  heads  is  peculiar  ;  the  faces  are  short  and 
broad,  with  very  wide  jaws,  and  are  marked  by  a  grave  but 
decidedly  youthful  expression.  His  Madonnas  usually  wear 
a  peculiar,  delicate,  filmy  headdress,  which  was  an  adorn- 
ment of  the  Florentine  ladies  of  his  time. 

His  angels  are  lusty,  merry-faced  boys. 

Most  important  works : 

Frescoes  representing  scenes  in  Lives  of  St.  Stephen  and  St.  John 

the  Baptist.     Choir  of  Cathedral,  Prato. 
FRESCOES  (much  injured).     Choir  of  Cathedral,  Spoleto. 
Altar-pieces.     Academy    and    Uffizi    Gallery,    Florence;    Louvre, 

Paris  ;  Berlin  Museum  ;  National  Gallery,  London. 

Sandro  Botticelli  (Alessandro  Filipepi,'  1447-1510),  called 
Botticelli  from  the  name  of  a  goldsmith  to  whose  service 
he  was  bound  when  a  boy,  was  a  pupil  of  Fra  Filippo  Lippi, 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  39 

and  is  one  of  the  most  important  among  the  fifteenth-century 
painters. 

Before  him  the  old  masters  had  drawn  the  inspiration 
for  their  works  from  the  Bible  ;  the  great  mass  of  pictures 
had  been  painted  in  the  service  of  the  church.  Botticelli's 
nature  was  imaginative ;  he  delighted  in  myths,  fables,  and 
poetry,  and  freely  introduced  into  his  painting  all  kinds  of 
fanciful  creations. 

Others  were  beginning  to  widen  a  little  the  field  of  art, 
but  Botticelli  was  the  first  to  step  boldly  forth  and  make  his 
painting  a  means  for  the  delight  of  the  secular  as  well  as  the 
religious  world.  He  was  a  leader  in  the  great  movement  in 
thlThistory  of  art  in  Florence  that  led  to  the  protest  made 
by  Savonarola  against  the  "  corrupting  influence,"  as  he 
called  it,  "of  profane  pictures,"  and  became  an  ardent 
disciple  of  this  great  prophet.  When  Savonarola  demanded 
that  bonfires  should  be  made  of  these  "  profane "  works 
of  art,  Botticelli  contributed  many  of  his  pictures  to  the 
burning  pile. 

Character  of  Painting.  —  While  Masaccio  had  taken  a 
long  step  in  advance  of  former  artists  by  making  man  rather 
than  events  the  chief  centre  of  interest  in  his  works,  Botti- 
celli pictured  not  merely  man  himself  but  also  his  very  inner 
feelings.  We  see  this  particularly  in  his  sad-faced  Madon- 
nas, whose  expression  seems  born  of  a  prophetic  sorrow, 
which  is  sometimes  further  denoted  by  the  introduction  of 
the  crown  of  thorns  into  the  picture  ;  it  is  also  seen  in  the 
eager,  sympathetic  countenances  of  those  who  surround 
her. 

He  created  a  type  of  face  and  figure  that  is  most  easily 
recognizable.  His  figures  are  unusually  tall  and  graceful, 
often  shown  through  almost  transparent  garments ;  the  limbs 
are  slender,  the  hands  long  and  nervous.  His  faces  are  long 
and  thin,  with  prominent,  rounded  chins  and  very  full  lips. 


40 


THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


His  style  of  painting  shows  early  training  in  the  gold- 
smith's shop ;  he  loved  to  elaborate  with  gold-painted  em- 


BOTTICBLLI.    MADONNA  AND  CHILD  WITH  ST.  JOHN  THE  BAPTIST.    LOUVRE. 

broideries  and  jewelry,  and  even  gilded  the  lights  upon  the 
heavy  locks  of  hair. 

His  coloring  is  uneven,  but  often  most   agreeable  ;  his 
fanciful  pictures  are  sometimes  happily  weird  in  color. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  41 

His  representation  of  figures  in  motion  is  far  beyond  any- 
thing that  preceded  him  and  has  never  been  excelled. 
Most  important  works : 

Three  large  frescoes.  "  History  of  Moses,"  "  Christ  in  the  Wil- 
derness," and  "  Destruction  of  Korah."  Sistine  Chapel,  Vati- 
can, Rome. 

"  Allegory  of  Spring."     Academy,  Florence. 

"  Calumny  "  (painted  after  Lucian's  description  of  the  picture  by 
Apelles;  see  page  10),  "  Birth  of  Venus,"  "Judith  with  Head 
of  Holofernes,"  "  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,"  "  Adoration  of 
the  Magi."  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  Pallas  (or  Minerva)  leading  captive,  Savage  Ignorance."  Pitti 
Palace.  This  picture  was  discovered  1895  (Frontispiece}. 

"  Chigi  Madonna."     Fenway  Museum,  Boston. 

"  Madonna,  Child,  and  St.  John,"  "  The  Magnificat."  Louvre, 
Paris. 

"Venus,"  "Madonna."  Berlin  Museum.  Here  also  are  Botti- 
celli's famous  illustrations  of  Dante's  Divina  Commedia. 

"Madonnas,"  "Mars  and  Venus."     National  Gallery,  London. 

Ghirlandajo  (Domenico  Bigordi,  1449-1494),  whose  artist- 
name  means  garland-maker,  and  signifies  his  father's  occu- 
pation, is  an  eminent  painter;  he,  Botticelli,  and  Filippino 
Lippi  form  a  remarkable  trio  whose  influence  hastened  the 
coming  of  the  High  Renaissance. 

Like  Botticelli,  Ghirlandajo  learned  the  goldsmith's  trade 
which,  at  this  period,  was  more  closely  allied  to  the  fine  arts 
than  ever  before  or  since. 

He  was  much  honored  b)  his  contemporaries,  and  his 
work  was  in  great  demand. 

For  three  years  he  was  the  master  of  Michael  Angelo. 

Characteristics.  —  The  composition  of  his  frescoes  is 
similar  to  that  of  Masaccio. 

He  represented  few  people  taking  active  part  in  the  prin- 
cipal scene,  but  grouped  about  them  many  others.  These 


42  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

on-lookers,  or  bystanders,  are  often  portraits  of  men  and 
women  who  lived  contemporary  with  the  artist,  so  that  we 
see  represented  in  his  pictures  the  life  of  Florence  at  its 
most  brilliant  time.  So  true  is  the  portraiture  that  we  feel 
certain  that  these  stately  gowned  men  and  these  dignified, 
fascinating  women  in  their  rich  brocaded  costumes,  relieved 
against  masses  of  Florentine  architecture,  have  lived  and 
acted.  They  make  a  deeper  impression  upon  us  than  does 
the  sacred  scene  which  is  the  subject  of  the  picture. 

The  portrait  is  a  prominent  characteristic  of  Ghirlandajo's 
work. 

His  drawing  is  good,  and  treatment  of  drapery  simple  and 
free. 

His  color  is  generally  very  warm,  and  his  easel  pic- 
tures, particularly,  are  sometimes  too  brilliant  in  reds  and 
yellows. 

Most  important  works  : 

FRESCO.      "  Calling   of   Peter   and   Andrew."      Sistine   Chapel, 

Vatican,  Rome. 
Large  series  of  frescoes  representing  scenes  in  Lives  of  the  Virgin 

and  St.  John  the  Baptist.     Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence. 
Series  of  frescoes  representing  scenes  in  Life  of  St.  Francis  of 

Assisi.     Sassetti  Chapel,  Santa  Trinita,  Florence. 
Decorative  frescoes.     Palazzo  Vecchio,  Florence. 
Fresco.     "  Last  Supper."     Ognissanti,  Florence. 
"  Madonna  and  Saints."     Academy,  Florence. 
"  Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  "Madonna  and  Saints."    Uffizi  Gallery, 

Florence. 
"  Visitation."     Louvre,  Paris. 

Filippino  Lippi  (1457-1504),  son  of  Fra  Filippo  Lippi  and 
pupil  of  Botticelli,  has  the  honor  of  having  completed  the 
series  of  frescoes  in  the  Brancacci  Chapel,  Florence,  begun 
by  Masolino  and  carried  on  by  Masaccio.  He  ranks  with 
Botticelli  and  Ghirlandajo  in  importance. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  43 

Characteristics.  —  His  works  are  noted  for  high  sentiment, 
grace,  and  beauty,  rather  than  for  strength  of  conception  or 
rendering.  He,  however,  easily  assimilated  the  qualities  of 
other  artists  ;  therefore  his  work  differs  at  various  periods 
of  his  life.  His  early  work  in  the  Brancacci  Chapel  re- 
sembles Masaccio's,  while  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distin- 
guish some  of  his  later  painting  from  that  of  Botticelli.  He, 
however,  lacks  the  nervous  energy  seen  in  much  of  Botticelli's 
work. 

His  faces  are  particularly  sweet  and  charming. 

He  delighted  to  embellish  his  figures,  in  easel  pictures 
especially,  with  varied  draperies,  headdresses,  etc. 

The  many  accessories1  of  his  pictures  are  painted  with 
peculiar  facility. 

Most  important  works  : 

FRESCOES.  "  Peter  in  Prison  Visited  by  Paul,"  "  Liberation  of 
Peter  by  the  Angel,"  "  Martyrdom  of  Peter." 

"  Resurrection  of  the  Child  by  Peter  "  (finished  by  Lippi).  Bran- 
cacci Chapel,  Santa  Maria  del  Carmine,  Florence. 

FRESCOES.  Scenes  in  Lives  of  St.  John  and  St.  Philip.  Chapel 
of  Filippo  Strozzi,  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence. 

FRESCOES.     Caraffa  Chapel,  Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  Rome. 

"  Madonna  Appearing  to  St.  Bernard."     Badia,  Florence. 

"  Madonna  and  Saints,"  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi."  Uffizi  Gal- 
lery, Florence. 

"  Madonna  with  Saints  Jerome  and  Dominick,"  "Adoration  of  the 
Magi."  National  Gallery,  London. 

Cosimo  Roselli  (1439-1507),  pupil  of  Botticelli,  painted 
frescoes  composed  after  the  manner  of  Masaccio. 

His  works  are  inferior  to  those  of  Masaccio  and  Lippi,  yet 
there  are  many  strong  heads  in  them. 

His  figures  are  pleasing  and  the  costumes  are  treated  with 
considerable  skill. 

1  See  "  Technical  Terms  Used  in  Painting,"  p.  257. 


44  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

He  used  much  gold. 
Most  important  works : 

FRESCOES.     "  Passage  of  Red  Sea,"  "  Moses  Giving  Tables  of 

Law,"  "  Last   Supper,"  "  Sermon  on  the  Mount."     Sistine 

Chapel,  Vatican,  Rome. 
FRESCO.      "  Removal   of   Sacramental   Cup."     Sant'  Ambrogio, 

Florence. 
"  Coronation  of  the  Virgin."     Santa  Maria  Maddalena  de'  Pazzi, 

Florence. 

Piero  di  Cosimo  (1462-1521),  pupil  of  Cosimo  Roselli,  after 
whom  he  was  named,  discarded  fresco  painting  for  tempera, 
and  almost  set  aside  religious  subjects  for  mythological,  so 
much  fonder  was  he  of  the  latter. 

He  was  a  painter  of  great  originality,  was  the  first  real 
landscapist  among  the  Florentines,  and  placed  some  of  his 
mythical  scenes  in  the  midst  of  truly  delightful  landscapes. 
He  painted  the  background  in  Cosimo  Roselli's  fresco, 
"  Sermon  on  the  Mount,"  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  Rome. 

He  was  also  a  portrait  painter  of  considerable  note. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine."     Foundling  Hospital,  Florence. 
"  Virgin  with   Saints,"   also  three  mythological   pictures  of   the 

"  History  of  Perseus."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Death  of  Procris."     National  Gallery,  London. 
"Venus,  Cupid,  and  Mars."     Berlin  Museum. 

The  Pollajuoli  Brothers,  Antonio  and  Pietro  (1429-1498) 
(1443-1498  ?),  carried  on  several  arts,  being  goldsmiths 
and  sculptors  as  well  as  painters.  Their  pictures  are  filled 
with  costly  jewelled  ornaments  and  embossed  articles  of  vari- 
ous kinds,  and  their  figures  are  exceedingly  sculpturesque. 

Vasari  reports  the  brothers  to  have  been  the  first  artists 
who  practised  dissection  in  the  study  of  anatomy.  They 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  45 

were  also  the  first  Florentine  artists  who  practised  oil  paint- 
ing. Antonio  is  the  more  noted  painter,  still  it  is  often 
difficult  to  distinguish  the  work  of  one  brother  from  that  of 
the  other. 

Representative  works : 

Pictures.     Uffizi  and  Pitti  Galleries,  and  Academy,  Florence. 

"  Annunciation."     Berlin  Museum. 

"  Martyrdom  of  St.  Sebastian.     National  Gallery,  London.     This 

has   been   called   the   first   oil   painting   executed   in    Italy. 

Although   it   is  not  tempera,   yet  it  is  not   oil  painting  as 

practised  by  the  Van  Eycks,  nor  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  who 

painted  soon  afterward. 

Luca  Signorelli  (1441-1523),  though  born  in  Cortona,  within 
the  precincts  of  Umbria,  was  educated  in  the  Florentine 
School,  to  which  his  works  belong. 

He  was  unequal  ;  his  paintings,  especially  in  fresco,  are 
fine,  and  worthy  of  study,  while  most  of  his  easel  pictures 
are  decidedly  inferior. 

He  loved  best  to  paint  the  naked,  human  figure  strong, 
muscular,  and  violent  in  action,  and  his  work  of  this  kind, 
full  of  bold  foreshortenings,  won  the  highest  admiration  of 
his  great  successor,  Michael  Angelo,  and  greatly  influenced 
him  in  his  work  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  of  the  Vatican. 
Indeed,  Signorelli's  contribution  to  the  world  of  art  is  the 
human  figure,  used  as  a  means  of  decoration.  For  the  face 
he  did  not  care,  nor  for  color,  nor  for  accessories,  therefore 
we  find  little  in  his  work  that  can  be  called  beautiful  or 
charming. 

Most  important  works  : 

Frescoes  in  chapel  of  St.  Brizio.  Cathedral,  Orvieto.  These  com- 
plete the  series  begun  by  Fra  Angelico.  The  chief  of  them 
are  "Preaching  of  Antichrist,"  "Resurrection  of  the  Dead," 


46  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

"  Hell,"  and  "  Paradise."  It  is  very  interesting  here  to  note 
the  difference  between  the  works  of  these  two  artists.  On  the 
ceiling  are  the  quiet,  purely  devout  figures  of  Angelico,  drawn 
and  painted  with  all  his  accustomed  delicacy  of  finish,  while 
spread  over  the  walls  below  are  the  passionate,  vehement 
figures,  boldly  drawn  and  broadly  painted  by  Signorelli.  In 
no  other  place  can  be  seen  a  like  contrast  of  conception  and 
execution. 

FRESCOES.  Convent  of  Mont'  Oliveto,  near  Sienna,  and  in  Palazzo 
Petrucci,  Sienna. 

FRESCO.     "  History  of  Moses."     Sistine  Chapel,  Vatican,  Rome. 

Altar-pieces  by  Signorelli  are  in  churches  in  Cortona,  Arezzo,  and 
Perugia. 

Easel  pictures.  Uffizi  and  Pitti  Galleries,  Florence ;  Berlin 
Museum  ;  Louvre,  Paris ;  National  Gallery,  London. 

Andrea  Verrocchio  (1435-1488)  was,  according  to  Vasari, 
"  a  goldsmith,  a  master  in  perspective,  a  sculptor,  a  carver 
in  wood,  a  painter,  and  a  musician."  Science  seems  to  have 
been  more  of  a  passion  with  him  than  art ;  he  was  a  better 
sculptor  than  painter,  yet  critics  of  to-day  yield  him  a  higher 
place  as  painter  than  has  been  given  him  hitherto.  He  was 
the  teacher  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  his  influence  is  seen 
in  that  great  painter's  peculiar  landscape  backgrounds,  the 
twilight  effect  of  light,  and  the  individual  type  of  face 
which  has  become  so  inseparably  connected  with  his  work 
and  that  of  his  school. 

This  type  is  seen  in  the  face  of  Verrocchio's  bronze 
"  David  "  now  in  the  Bargello,  Florence,  and  Vasari  tells  of 
some  drawings  by  him  in  his  own  possession  which  exhibited 
the  same  individual  forms  and  expression. 

Some  eminent  critics  have  advanced  the  opinion  that  there 
was  a  mutual  influence  exerted  by  Verrocchio  and  Leonardo, 
and  that  the  master's  work  was  much  modified  by  the  spirit 
and  genius  of  his  gifted  pupil. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  47 

\ 

Only  one  existing  picture,  and  this  a  much  injured  one,  is 
surely  Verrocchio's  —  "The  Baptism  of  our  Saviour,"  now  in  the 
Academy,  Florence,  the  angel  nearest  the  foreground  of  which  is 
said  to  have  been  painted  by  Leonardo.  Tradition  says  that 
when  Verrocchio  saw  this  figure,  so  superior  to  his  own,  he 
renounced  painting  and  gave  himself  up  to  sculpture. 

The  character  of  background  and  the  twilight  effect  of 
this  picture  are  forerunners  of  much  that  charms  us  in 
Leonardo's  "  Mona  Lisa." 

Lorenzo  di  Credi  (1459-1537),  pupil  of  Verrocchio,  is  de- 
cidedly inferior  to  Leonardo,  yet  there  are  such  points  of 
similarity  that  critics  have  sometimes  found  it  difficult  to 
distinguish  with  absolute  certainty  between  the  early  works 
of  the  two.  Their  later  work  differs  widely. 

Characteristics.  —  Subjects  religious  and  limited  to  Holy 
Families,  Annunciations,  etc. 

These  are  usually  placed  in  landscapes  with  architectural 
backgrounds. 

The  type  of  his  Madonnas  is  gentle  and  graceful,  with 
faces  shaped  like  those  of  Leonardo,  but  the  expression  is 
rather  insipid.  His  attitudes  are  often  affected. 

His  children  are  apt  to  be  fat  and  clumsy. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Madonna  and  Child  with  St.  John."     Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 
"  Nativity."     Academy,  Florence. 

"  Annunciation,"  "  Holy  Family."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"Virgin  Adoring  Child."     Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 
"  Virgin  and  Child  with  Saints."     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Madonna  and  Child,"  "  Virgin  Adoring  Child."     National  Gal- 
lery, London. 


CHAPTER   V. 

ITALIAN    PAINTING. 


FLORENTINE    OR   TUSCAN    SCHOOL  (Continued}. 
HIGH  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  1500-1600. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1452-1519)  was  born  at  Vinci,  in  the 
Val  d'Arno,  below  Florence,  and  is  accounted  one  of  the 
four  greatest  masters  in  the  history  of  painting  ;  the  three 
others  being  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and  Titian.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Verrocchio. 

Leonardo  has  been  well  called  a  "  universal  genius."  He 
was  painter,  sculptor,  architect,  and  engineer.  He  had  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  anatomy,  mathematics,  astronomy, 
and  botany,  and  also  was  poet  and  musician. 

It  was  his  greatest  delight  to  study,  —  to_study__the 
growth  of  plant  life,  the  hidden  laws  that  govern  the 
.mineral  world,  the  movement  of  planets  in  the  heaven's^  — 
and  this  love  for  the  deep  things  of  nature  he  carried  into 
his  stud_y  of  art. 

It  is  said  that  he  always  wore  a  sketchbook  attached  to 
Jiis  girdle,  and  would  wander  through  the  streets  of  Florence 
looking  for  some  especially  picturesque  figure  or  some  face 
possessing  unusual  subtility  of  expression,  that  he  would 
excite  the  mirth  of  peasants  that  he  might  study  the  lines  of 
their  laughing  faces  and  that  he  even  followed  criminals  to 
their  painful  death  that  he  might  gain  some  new  experience 
that  should  aid  his  art.  In  this  way  he  laid  the  foundation 
for  the  most  eminent  characteristics  of  his  work.  Yet,  from 

48 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  49 

the  study  of  Leonardo's  life,  we  must  judge  that  he  enjoyed 
more  thisjstndy  in  apd_joj^jtspjf_tha.n^fnr  its  resjjltS^Jor  he 
was  never  satisfied  with  these  wlien^ wrought  intoji  picture. 
He  was  a  most  devoted  and  happy  student  ;  he  was  a  most 
dissatisfied  painter.  Over  and  over  again  would  he  paint 
arid^then  destroy  his  work.  It  is  to  this  characteristic  that 
th^sn^)LjiwnliejLQjLMs_ejc 

When  about  thirty  years  old,  Leonardo^  went  to  Milan, 
where  he  wrought,  both  in  sculpture  and  painting,  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  reigning  duke,  and  became  master  of  the  Milanese, 
or  Lombard  school  of  painting. 

j^fter  many  years  of  work  he  returned  to  Florence,  and 
here,  at  one  time,  entered  into  a  competition  with  Michael 
the  dec£ration_qf^Jh^e  two  end  walls  of  the  great" 

o^n^iHn^Pdazzg_Vecchio.     Leonardo  chose 
for  his  subject  "The  Defeat  of_the_  Milanese by  jheJFloren- 
tines  at_Anghiari  "  ;  Michael  Angelo  chose  "  Pisan  soldiers 
^alled^suddenly  to  arms  wjiiLe_ba^ngJn^Jhe_Arno.''      The  . 
cartoons  produced  by  the  two  masters  mark  an  important  \-  x 
epoch  in  Italian  art.     In  them  we  find  for  the  first  time  the 
human  figure  treated  with  all  the  truth  and  splendid  fulness 
of  expression  of  the  High  Renaissance.    Neither  picture 
was_compj5.ted. 

A  part  of  Leonardo's  cartoon,  called  "The  Battle  of  the 
Standard,"  is  now  known  by  an  engraving  after  a  copy  by 
Rubens. 

Characteristics,  —  In  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century 
all  the  great  principles  which  underlie  the  art  of  representa- 
tion had  been  mastered.  Each  great  preceding  painter  had 
made  some  important  contribution  to  the  general  knowledge, 
until  at  this  period  the  artist  found  himself  fully  equipped 
for  his  work. 

Leonardo's  greatest  gift  to  painting  was  a  perfected  chia- 
roscuro.  His  treatment  of  this  was  a  revelation  to  his 


50 


THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


contemporaries  and  followers,  and  is  the  wonder  and  despair 
of  arlistsJXMfoy  :  so  melting,  so  mysterious  are  his  shadows, 
and  in  such  a  witching  way  do  his  lights  pass  into  them. 
He  used  to  say  to  his  pupils,  "  Be  as  careful  of  the  light  in 

your  picture  as  you 
would  be  of  u^-rare 
jewel"  ;  and  his 
work  shows  how 
well  he  followed  his 
own  precept. 

His  composition, 
seen  at  its  best  in 
the  "  Last  Supper," 
cannot  be  sur- 
prassed. 

His  drawing  is 
most  careful ;  his 
lines  express  won- 
derfullythe  subtility 
of  form. 

His  color  is^dear 
and  silvery,  but  has 
suffered  very  much 
from  his  habit  of 
technique.  He  used 

and  painted  and  jrepainted,  touched  and  retouched 
infinitely.  His  backgrounds  show  a  mannerism  that  seems 
to  have  followed  him  from  the  studio  of  his  master,  Ver- 
rocchio;  rQcks  and  dark  trees  and  running  water,  with 
diffused  twilight,  mark  nearly  every  one  of  his  works. 

His  ideal  woman's  face  has  dark  eyes  and  hair,  a  long, 
slender  nose,  and  a  somewhat  pointed  chin,  and  is  marked  by 
ajaeculiar,  langmd^subtile  smile.  His  pupils,  trying  to  imi- 
tate  this  smile,  often  painted  insipidity  instead  of  subtility. 


LEONARDO  DA  VINCI.    MONA  LISA.    LOUVRE. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING. 


51 


No  other  artist  ever  painted  faces  so  wrought  upon  by  a 
depth  of  inner  feeling  as  did  Leonardo. 
Existing  works : 

"  The  Last  Supper."  Monastery  of  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie, 
Milan.  This  picture,  painted  in  oils  on  plaster,  in  a  damp 
situation,  is  al- 
most ruined.  It 
has  been  inun- 
dated by  water; 
it  has  been  re- 
stored ;  then 
these  restora- 
tions have  been 
removed  as  far 
as  possible  ;  a 
doorway  has 
been  cut,  tak- 
ing off  the  Sav- 
iour's feet ;  yet, 
in  spite  of  all, 
the  power  of  the 
great  master's 
conception  is 
still  present.  It 
is  probably  the 
most  widely 

known  picture  in  the  world,  for  wherever  the  Bible  has  gone, 
Leonardo's  "Last  Supper"  has  followed.  It  is  numbered 
among  the  twelve  pictures  which  are  often  called  "  World 
Pictures."  (This  is,  of  course,  a  purely  arbitrary  selection, 
having  no  weight  of  authority ;  some  one  gave  the  name  to  a 
list  of  pictures,  and  others,  pleased  with  the  idea,  have  made 
it  somewhat  common.) 

"  Head  of  Christ."  Brera  Gallery,  Milan.  This  is  a  pure  study 
of  expression  of  feeling,  made  on  paper  with  chalk  and  water- 
color,  and  is  one  of  many  made  by  the  artist  before  painting 
the  Christ  in  "  The  Last  Supper." 


LEONARDO  DA  VINCI.     STUDY  FOR  HEAD  OF  Cf 
BRERA. GALLERY,  MILAN. 


52  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

"Adoration  of  the  Magi  "  (unfinished).     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Mona  Lisa,"  also  called  "  La  Joconde "  (wife   of    Leonardo's 

friend)  ;  this  is  without  doubt  the  most  famous  portrait  in  the 

world,  on  the  painting  of  which  Leonardo  spent  four  years  and 
N    then  declared  that  he  could  not  finish  it  to  his  satisfaction. 
"Virgin  with  St.  Anne"  and  "Virgin  of  the  Rocks."     Louvre. 

Paris. 
"  Virgin  of  the  Rocks."     National  Gallery,  London.     The  weight 

of  authority  considers  this  a  replica  of  the  picture  in  the 

Louvre. 

Most  important  works  (doubtfully  ascribed  to  Leonardo)  : 

"  Annunciation."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  La  Monaca."     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  La  Belle  Ferroniere  "  and  "  St.  John."     Louvre,  Paris. 

Fra  Bartolommeo  (Baccio  della  Porta,  1475-1517),  born 
near  Florence,  was  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of  San  Marco, 
the  same  to  which  Fra  Angelico  belonged.  He  had  already 
won  considerable  fame  as  a  painter  under  his  real  name, 
"  Baccio,"  when  the  shock  produced  by  the  martyrdom  of  his 
friend  Savonarola  caused  him  to  renounce  painting  and  enter 
the  monastery,  which  he  did  under  the  name  Fra  Bartolommeo. 

After  six  years  of  utter  seclusion,  at  the  urgent  entreaty 
of  friends,  he  resumed  his  brush. 

About  this  time  Raphael  visited  Florence,  became  strongly 
attached  to  Bartolommeo,  learned  from  him  his  method  of 
coloring,  and,  in  return,  gave  him  instruction  in  drawing. 
Both  artists  seem  to  have  profited  by  their  intimacy. 

Bartolommeo's  rank  among  Italian  painters  is  high.  Few 
of  his  pictures  are  found  outside  of  Italy. 

Characteristics.  —  His  peculiar  sphere  was  devotional 
painting. 

His  composition  is  simple,  almost  architectural  in  its 
masses ;  his  favorite  form  is  the  pyramid,  within  whose 
outline  he  has  grouped  few  figures. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  53 

Types  of  figures  and  faces  are  abstract  and  contain  little 
individuality. 

His  figures  are  clothed  with  heavy  masses  of  drapery, 
which  is  finely  treated.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
artist  to  use  the  lay-figure.1 

In  many  pictures  of  the  Madonna  little  boy  angels  are 


FRA  BARTOLOMMEO.     DETAIL  OF  MADONNA.     CATHEDRAL,  LUCCA. 

introduced,  sitting  at  her  feet  and  playing  on  musical  instru- 
ments, or  otherwise  occupied  in  ministry.  Raphael  borrowed 
this  fancy. 

His  color  is  finer  than  usual  with  Florentine  painters,  but 
injured  by  the  use  of  black  pigment  in  shadows. 

His  management  of  chiaroscuro  shows  the  influence  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

1  See  "  Technical  Terms  Used  in  Painting,"  p.  258. 


54  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Most  important  works : 

"  Madonna."     Cathedral,  Lucca. 

"  Madonna  della  Misericordia."     Museum,  Lucca. 

"  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  "  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine,"  "  Risen 

Christ  among  Evangelists,"   "  St.  Mark,"   "  Holy  Family." 

Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 
"Madonna  and   Saints,"   "Nativity,"   "Job,"    "Isaiah."     Uffizi 

Gallery,  Florence. 

"  Virgin  Appearing  to  St.  Bernard."     Academy,  Florence. 
Portrait  of  Savonarola.     San  Marco,  Florence. 
"  Holy  Family."     Louvre,  Paris. 

Mariotto  Albertinelli  (1465-1520)  was  a  devoted  friend  and 
follower  of  Bartolommeo.  They  sometimes  wrought  on  the 
same  picture,  and  in  such  case  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish 
the  painting  of  each. 

Albertinelli  was  far  less  devout  in  character,  and  this  is 
seen  in  most  of  the  works  produced  by  himself  alone. 

Most  important  works  : 

"Visitation"  (his  masterpiece).     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Holy  Family."     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Madonna  with  Saints."     Louvre,  Paris. 

Michael  Angelo  Buonarroti  (1475-1564),  born  at  CasteF  Cap- 
rese,  near  Arezzo  in  Tuscany,  is  the  second  in  point  of  time 
of  the  great  quartet  of  world-masters  of  painting,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished as  sculptor,  painter,  and  architect,  as  well  as 
engineer  and  poet.  In  his  boyhood  he  was  bound  for  three 
years  to  Ghirlandajo,  and,  contrary  to.  the  usual  custom, 
that  master  paid  an  annual  sum  for  the  boy's  assistance 
instead  of  charging  for  his  instruction.  From  this  circum- 
stance we  may  judge  of  his  early  ability  and  his  worth  to 
his  teacher.  He  soon  distinguished  himself  from  the  other 
pupils  of  Ghirlandajo,  and  attracted  the  notice  of  that  great 
patron  of  art,  Lorenzo  d^^edici^jvhp^^gave  him  a  home  in 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  55 

his  own  palace  and  commissioned  him  to  execute  several 
pieces  of  sculpture. 

Here  Michael  Angelo  lived  for  four  years,  and  was  brought 
into  contact  with  many  of  the  greatest  and  most  intellectual 
men  of  that  time  in  Italy.  The  worth  of  such  influence  to 
the  young  man's  life  must  have  been  incalculable. 

He  became  a  diligent  student  of  Masaccio's  great  frescoes 
in  the  Brancacci  Chapel,  and  also  of  the  remains  of  ancient 
art  in^Florence.  He  gave  himself  up  to  study  of  anatomy 
more  like  a  devotee  than  an  ordinary  student. 

Until^go.^  MichaeLAngelo  is  known  (with  the  exception 
of  a  few  small  pictures)  exclusively  as  a  sculptor,  but  in  this 
year  he  received  the  commission  to  enter  the  lists  as  a 
painter  with  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (see  account  given  under 
that  master,  p.  49).  The  cartoon  made  at  this  time  brought 
him  so  much  fame,  that  soon  after  he  was  summoned  by  the 
order  of  Pope  Julius  II  to  execute  the  great  series  of  frescoes 
on  the  vaulted  ceiling  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  of  the.  Vatican, 
at  Rome.  He  was  then  so  diffident  of  his  own  powers  as  a 
painter  that,  having  consented,  with  great  reluctance,  to 
undertake  the  work,  he  sent  for  some  of  his  old  Florentine 
companions  to  paint  the  frescoes  from  his  cartoons.  Not 
satisfied  with  their  work,  however,  he  destroyed  it  all  and 
painted  the  whole  with  his  own  hand. 

He  loved  sculpture  best  and  was  greatest  in  sculpture, 
but,  strangely  enough,  his  most  famous  works  to-day  are  his 
fresco  paintings,  which  alone  gave  him  sufficient  space  for 
the  representation  of  his  mighty  conceptions.  In  these, 
however,  he  is  the  painter-sculptor,  not  alone  the  painter, 
for  his  frescoes  are  full  of  sculpturesque  qualities. 

The  personal  character  of  Michael  Angelo  is  unique  in 
its  heroic  qualities.  He  was  Titan-like,  and  towers  in  his 
great  personality  far  above  all  other  masters.  He  was 
capable  of  tremendous  toil  and  never  spared  himself.  His 


56  THE  WORLDS  PAINTERS. 

whole  life  was  one  colossal  labor  ;  from  the  cradle  to  the 
grave  he  struggled  to  attain  his  high  ideals,  and  this  innate 
strength  of  the  man  is  impressed  upon  all  that  he  ever 
accomplished. 

Characteristics.  —  First  of  all,  we  must  notice  the  greatness 
and  essential  poetry  of  his  conception  and  style. 

His  compositions  differ  from  those  of  other  masters  in 
that  each  part  seems  complete  in  itself.  He  has  placed 
magnificent  figures  side  by  side,  and  they  have  to  do  with 
each  other,  and  yet  the  relative  action  is  not  in  the  least 
necessary  to  the  full  force  of  expression  of  the  figures. 

He  discarded  draperies  almost  wholly,  having  had  a  pas- 
sion for  the  representation  of  the  nude  human  figure. 

His  treatment  is  always  sculpturesque.  He  saw  and 
rendered  everything  in  the  mass,  wholly  subordinating  all 
details. 

His  figures  are  exaggerated  in  size  and  strength  of  mus- 
cles, with  broad  and  deep  chests,  narrow  hips,  powerful 
thighs,  and  small  heads. 

The  lines  of  the  figure  are  far  more  important  than  the 
face,  which  possesses  a  singular  abstract  expression,  the 
farthest  possible  removed  from  anything  individual  or  por- 
trait-like. 

Color  is  little  cared  for,  yet  a  pleasing,  sober  harmony 
prevails. 

He  painted  in  fresco  and  tempera. 

Existing  works  : 

Frescoes  on  ceiling  of  Sistine  Chapel,  Rome. 

These  (in  nine  pictures,  five  smaller  and  four  larger)  rep- 
resent the  Creation  of  the  World  as  described  in  the  Bible, 
the  Creation  of  Adam  (the  figure  of  Adam  is  accounted  one 
of  the  finest  ever  painted)  and  of  Eve,  their  Temptation  and 
Fall,  Sacrifice  of  Noah,  Deluge,  and  Noah's  Drunkenness. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  57 

At  each  of  the  four  corners  of  the  smaller  of  these  pictures 
is  seated  an  athlete  or  decorative  figure,  a  new  race  of  beings 
created  by  Michael  Angelo. 

In  the  four  corners  of  the  ceiling  are  representations  of 
signal  deliverances  of  the  Jews  :  the  "  Lifting  of  the  Serpent 


MICHAEL  ANGELO.    DECORATIVE  FIGURE.    SISTINE  CHAPEL  OF  VATICAN,  ROMS. 

in  the  Wilderness,"  "  David  Slaying  Goliath,"  "  Judith  with 
the  Head  of  Holofernes,"  and  "  Crucifixion  of  Haman." 

Ranged  around  the  whole  are  twelve  magnificent  figures, 
seven  prophets,  who  foretold  Christ's  coming  to  the  Jewish 
world,  and  five  sibyls,  who  foretold  it  to  the  Gentile  world. 

In  the  arches  and  soffits  above  the  twelve  windows  are 
representations  of  distinguished  Bible  characters  who  lived 


58  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

between  Abraham  and  Christ,  and  a  succession  of  Holy 
Families  (the  so-called  "  Genealogy  of  the  Virgin ")  who 
are  awaiting  the  coming  of  the  Saviour. 

The  representation  of  a  massive  and  simple  architec- 
tural framework  assists  in  giving  distinctness  to  the  sev- 
eral parts  and  the  necessary  appearance  of  strength  and 
solidity. 

"  The  Last  Judgment,"  painted  on  end  wall  of  the  Sistine  Chapel 
above  the  altar.  This  is  an  immense  fresco  containing 
above  three  hundred  heads  and  figures.  It  is  numbered 
among  the  twelve  pictures  sometimes  called  "World  Pic- 
tures." 1 

"  Holy  Family "  (only  completed  easel  picture).  Uffizi  Gallery, 
Florence. 

"  Madonna  with  St.  John  the  Baptist  and  Angels  "  (unfinished). 
National  Gallery,  London. 

"  The  Three  Fates,"  Pitti  Gallery,  Florence,  so  often  attributed 
to  Michael  Angelo,  was  painted  after  his  design  by  Rosso 
Fiorentino. 

Daniele  da  Volterra  (Daniele  Ricciarelli,  1509-1566)  was 
the  ablest  follower  of  Michael  Angelo  in  the  Florentine 
School.  He  was,  however,  far  behind  that  master  in  con- 
ception and  grandeur  of  style. 

He  was  employed  after  Michael  Angelo's  death  to  paint 
draperies  on  certain  important  nude  figures  in  the  lower 
part  of  his  "  Last  Judgment,"  in  Sistine  Chapel,  Vatican. 

Most  important  works  : 

"  Descent  from  the  Cross."     Trinita  de'  Monti,  Rome.     This  is     - 
numbered  among  the  twelve  pictures  sometimes  called  "World 
Pictures."  * 

"  Massacre  of  the  Innocents."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

1  See  p.  51. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING. 


59 


Andrea  del  Sarto  (Andrea  d'Agnolo,  1488-1530),  called 
del  Sarto  from  the  trade  of  his  father,  who  was  a  tailor, 
was  born  in  Florence,  and  was  so  admired  by  his  country- 
men that  he  was  often  called  by  them  "  Andrea  senza 
errore  "  (Andrea  the  Faultless).  This  name  was  perhaps 
merited  by  the  high 
technical  qualities 
of  his  painting,  but 
not  by  its  concep- 
tion and  spirit. 

Characteristics. 
—  Subjects  wholly 
Biblical  or  devo- 
tional, but  not  rep- 
resented from  a 
religious  point  of 
view,  only  from 
that  of  physical 
grace  and  beauty. 
Composition  quiet 
and  broad. 

Too  voluminous 
draperies  often 
conceal  the  action 
and  grace  of  figures. 

His  faces  seldom 
represent  more 

than  one  type,  said  to  have  been  that  of  his  wife,  a  woman 
belonging  to  the  lower  classes  of  Florence.  This  type  of 
face  becomes  a  mannerism1  in  Del  Sarto's  pictures. 

The  charm  and  brilliance  of  his  color  surpass  all  other 
in    Florentine    painting.     He    modified   the    pure   primary 
colors  so  much  used  by  this  school,  softening  and  harmo- 
1  See  "Technical  Terms  Used  in  Painting,"  p.  258. 


ANDREA  DEL  SARTO.     ST.  JOHN  THE  BAPTIST. 
PITTI  GALLERY,  FLORENCE. 


60  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

nizing  them  greatly.  His  flesh  tones  are  most  delicate  and 
beautiful. 

His  technique  is  beyond  most  others  of  his  school. 

Most  important  works : 

FRESCOES  (notably  "  Madonna  of  the  Sack  ").     SS.  Annunziata, 

Florence. 
FRESCOES  (in  black  and  white).     Chiostro  dello  Scalzo,  Florence. 

These  are  especially  fine  in  composition  and  drawing. 
"  Madonna   of   St.    Francis "    (often   called    "  Madonna   of   the 

Harpies").     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Assumption,"  "  Disputa,"  "  Madonna  in  Glory,"  "  Holy  Family," 

"  Madonna  with  Saints,"  "  St.  John  Baptist."     Pitti  Gallery, 

Florence. 
Representative  works  are  in  Berlin  Museum  ;  Dresden  Gallery ; 

National  Gallery,  London ;  Louvre,  Paris. 

Franciabigio  (1482-1525),  a  pupil  of  Albertinelli,  was 
greatly  influenced  by  Andrea  del  Sarto,  with  whom  he  was 
connected  in  painting. 

His  portraits  are  especially  successful. 

Representative  works  : 

FRESCOES.  Chiostro  dello  Scalzo  and  SS.  Annunziata,  Florence. 
Portraits.  Pitti  Gallery,  Florence  ;  Louvre,  Paris  ;  Berlin  Museum. 
"  Bathsheba."  Gallery,  Dresden. 

Pontormo  (Jacopo  Carrucci,  1494-1557),  named  after  the 
town  of  his  birth,  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  del  Sarto,  and  so 
successfully  imitated  his  master  that  his  paintings  often  pass 
under  his  name. 

Representative  works : 

"Visitation,"  a  fresco  in  the  outer  court  of  the  SS.  Annunziata, 

Florence. 
Portraits.     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence ;   National  Gallery,  London ; 

Berlin  Museum ;  Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  61 

Ridolfo  Ghirlandajo  (1483-1561)  was  another  imitative 
artist  who  copied  largely  the  characteristics  of  the  work 
of  his  greater  contemporaries.  He  was  a  very  successful 
portrait  painter. 

Representative  works : 

"  St.  Zenobius  restoring  a  Boy  to  Life,"  "  Burial  of  St.  Zenobius." 
Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  Annunciation  "  (catalogued  to  Leonardo  da  Viriei).  Uffizi  Gal- 
lery, Florence. 

Probably  "The  Goldsmith"  (catalogued  to  Leonardo ^da  .Vinci) 
Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 


f 


CHAPTER   VI. 

ITALIAN    PAINTING. 


SIENNESE   SCHOOL. 

Characteristics.  —  Of  secondary  importance  in  the  history 
of  Italian  painting ;  exerted  little  influence  and  comprises 
few  names  of  especial  note ;  marked  by  a  love  for  the  ren- 
dering of  spiritual  rather  than  physical  life  and  by  refine- 
ment and  sweetness  of  expression.  Its  earliest  masters  gave 
much  attention  to  detail  and  picturing  of  ornament. 

GOTHIC  PERIOD,  1250-1400. 

Guido  da  Sienna  (dates  of  life  uncertain)  is  the  first  known 
painter  of  Sienna. 

In  the  church  of  San  Domenico,  Sienna,  is  an  altar-piece, 
a  Madonna  and  Child,  painted  in  1281  and  signed  by  this 
artist.  The  style  is  strictly  Byzantine,  but  there  is  a  very 
slight  attempt  at  roundness  and  movement  in  the  Child's 
head. 

Duccio  (was  painting  1282-1329?),  of  Sienna,  was  the  first 

master  of  the  school. 

He  was  contemporary  with  Giotto,  but  the  works  of  the 
two  are  very  different.  Duccio's  painting  is  simply  an 
improvement  on  the  Byzantine.  It  shows  added  grace  and 
motion,  a  sweeter  facial  expression,  more  natural  hands  and 
feet,  but  no  real  change  of  growth. 

Giotto's,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  revolt  from  the  old 
method,  full  of  new  conception  and  endeavor.  Duccio 

62 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  63 

possessed  the  greater  refinement;  Giotto,  the  far  greater 

strength,  and  was  of  infinitely  more  value  to  the  art  world. 

We  read  that  an  altar-piece  painted  by  Duccio  was  borne 

to  the  Cathedral  of  Sienna  with  pomp  and  rejoicing  even  as 


Duccio.     MADONNA  AND  CHILD.     MUSEUM,  SIENNA. 

that  of  Cimabue  in  Florence.  This  altar-piece  (which  repre- 
sents on  its  front  the  Madonna  with  Child  surrounded  by 
angels,  and  on  the  back  a  series  of  small  pictures  illustrat- 
ing the  life  of  Christ),  separated  into  various  parts,  is  now 
in  the  Opera  del  Duomo,  Sienna. 


64  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Simone  Martini  (1283  ?-i344),  often  called  Simone  Memmi, 
is  an  important  name  of  the  early  Siennese  School. 

Character  of  Painting.  —  Byzantine  type  softened  and 
improved  :  mildness  of  expression,  lack  of  force,  little  effort 
at  composition,  a  total  lack  of  perspective  drawing,  much 
detail  of  ornament,  and  careful  execution. 

Most  important  works  : 

Frescoes  from  the  Life  of  St.  Martin.     Lower  Church  of  Assisi. 

FRESCOES.     Palazzo  Pubblico,  Sienna. 

"  Virgin  and  Saints."     S.  Domenico,  Orvieto. 

"  Annunciation."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

For  frescoes  in  Spanish  chapel  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence, 

often   ascribed  to  Simone   Martini,  see  Andrea  da  Firenze, 

p.  28. 

Lippo  Memmi  ( J357)  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Simone 

Martini,  and,  though  an  inferior  artist,  painted  so  much  like 
him  that  there  is  some  difficulty  in  distinguishing  their  work. 
He  completed  several  pictures  left  unfinished  at  Martini's 
death.  r^-~" 

Most  important  works : 

FRESCOES.     Palazzo  del  Podesta,  San  Gemignano. 
Altar-piece.     Chapel  of  S.  Corporale,  Orvieto. 

Lorenzetti  Brothers,  Pietro  and  Ambrogio  (were  painting 
about  1350),  are  the  most  noted  Siennese  artists  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Their  work  is  much  more  advanced 
and  vigorous  than  that  of  Duccio  and  Martini,  and  resembles 
that  of  Giotto  more  than  does  any  other  Siennese  painting. 
Ambrogio  is  the  greater  artist. 

Most  important  works : 

Ambrogio.  —  FRESCOES.     Palazzo  Pubblico,  Sienna. 
Remains  of  frescoes.     S.  Francis,  Sienna. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  65 

Pietro.  —  Altar-pieces.      Church  of  Sant'  Ansano   and   Gallery, 

Arezzo. 

Series  of  frescoes.     Lower  Church  of  St.  Francis,  Assisi. 
Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  believe  that  the  celebrated  frescoes,  the 

"  Last  Judgment "  and  "  Triumph  of  Death,"  in  the  Campo 

Santo   of   Pisa,  were   painted   by  the    Lorenzetti   brothers. 

Other    distinguished    authorities    differ    in    opinion.      (See 

Orcagna,  p.  29.) 

Matteo  da  Sienna  (about  1435-1495)  is  the  greatest  Siennese 
name  among  artists  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  represents 
the  highest  development  of  the  style  of  Duccio.  He  was, 
however,  greatly  inferior  to  his  Florentine  contemporaries, 
because  while  the  methods  of  artistic  representation  had 
developed  so  rapidly  in  Florence,  they  had  made  little  prog- 
ress in  Sienna.  The  religious  sentiment  of  Matteo's  work 
is  of  a  high  order ;  his  faces  are  solemn  and  sweet  and  the 
action  of  some  of  his  figures  very  admirable.  When,  how- 
ever, he  attempted  to  go  beyond  the  expression  of  simple 
and  quiet  sentiment,  he  failed  utterly. 

Most  important  works  : 

Altar-piece.     Church  of  S.  Domenico,  Sienna. 

Altar-piece.     "  Assumption   of   the    Virgin."     National    Gallery, 

London. 
"  Murder  of  the  Innocents."     Museum,  Naples. 


HIGH  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  1500-1600. 

II  Sodoma  (Giovanantonio  Bazzi,  sometimes  written  Razzi, 
about  1477-1549),  born  in  Vercelli,  was  a  pupil  of  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  at  Milan,  and  is  often  classed  in  the  Lombard 
School.  He  was  also  influenced  by  Raphael.  He  spent 
much  of  his  life  in  Sienna,  and  his  influence  was  sensibly 
felt  in  all  the  later  Siennese  painting. 


66 


THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


L  SODOMA.     ADAM  AND  EVE — DETAIL  OF 
DESCENT  INTO  HADBS.    MUSEUM,  SIENNA. 


He  was  an  unequal 
painter,  and  much  of 
his  work  is  evidently 
inferior  to  his  ability, 
but  it  possesses  a  cer- 
tain strong  fascination 
that  renders  the  artist 
a  favorite.  Lanzi  pays 
him  the  very  doubtful 
compliment  that, 
"  though  unwilling  to 
paint  well,  he  did  not 
know  how  to  paint 
badly." 

Characteristics. — The 
influence  of  Leonardo 
is  strikingly  seen  in 
much  of  Sodoma's 
work.  His  composi- 
tion is  like  his  master's, 
also  his  type  of  female 
faces ;  indeed,  his  best 
female  heads  rank  with 
those  of  Leonardo; 
very  many  of  them, 
however,  though  like, 
are  less  noble. 

His  figures  are  slen- 
der and  long-limbed, 
his  hands  long,  with 
tapering  ringers. 

His  draperies  are 
marked  by  serpentine 
folds. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  67 

His  backgrounds  often  contain  running  water  (like  Leo- 
nardo's) —  usually  a  broad  stream  winding  away  into  the 
distance,  with  groups  of  low  trees  along  the  banks.  A  hill  is 
frequently  introduced  on  one  side,  with  towers  and  temples. 

In  his  earlier  works  the  color  and  chiaroscuro  are  light 
and  clear.  They  are  much  fuller  in  his  later  pictures. 

His  portraits  are  admirable. 

Most  important  works : 

FRESCO.  "  Descent  into  Hades."  Gallery,  Sienna.  This  con- 
tains a  most  exquisite  figure  of  Eve  that  is  justly  famous. 

"  Christ  Bound  to  a  Column,"  a  fresco  transferred  to  canvas. 
Gallery,  Sienna. 

FRESCOES.  Chapel  of  St.  Catherine  of  Sienna,  San  Domenico, 
Sienna. 

Frescoes  representing  scenes  in  Life  of  St.  Benedict.  Convent  of 
Mont'  Oliveto. 

FRESCOES  (among  which  is  the  famous  "  Marriage  of  Alexander 
and  Roxana  ").  Villa  Farnesina,  Rome. 

"  St.  Sebastian."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  Ascension."     Naples  Museum. 

"  Madonna  with  Child  and  St.  Joseph,""  Leda."  Borghese  Gallery, 
Rome. 

Portrait.     Staedel  Museum,  Frankfort. 

Baldassare  Peruzzi  (1481-1536)  is  famous  as  an  architect 
and  is  of  considerable  note  as  a  painter.  He  was  an  imitator 
of  Pinturricchio  (see  Roman  or  Umbrian  School,  p.  72),  and 
of  II  Sodoma  ;  was  also  somewhat  influenced  by  Raphael. 

His  work  is  decorative ;  the  perspective  representations 
are  particularly  fine. 

Representative  works  : 

FRESCO.     Madonna  di  Fontegiusta,  Sienna. 
FRESCOES.     Sant'  Onofrio  and  Madonna  del  Pace,  Rome. 
FRESCOES.     Villa  Farnesina,  Rome. 
Easel  Pictures.     Gallery,  Madrid. 


68  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Domenico  Beccafumi  (1486-1551)  was  an  imitator  of  II 
Sodoma,  but  of  less  importance  than  Peruzzi.  He  assisted 
Sodoma  in  the  frescoes  of  the  oratory  of  San  Bernardino, 
Sienna. 

His  coloring  is  exceedingly  clear  and  well  preserved. 

Representative  works  : 

FRESCOES.     Ceiling  of  Palazzo  Pubblico,  Sienna. 
Altar-piece.     Gallery,  Sienna. 

Easel  Pictures  in  Palazzo  Doria,  Rome  ;  Pitti  Gallery,  Florence ; 
and  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

ITALIAN    PAINTING. 


ROMAN    OR    UMBRIAN    SCHOOL. 

Characteristics.  —  Subject  to  Florentine  influence  ;  marked 
by  cheerful  sentiment  and  moral  teaching,  with  a  deep 
sense  of  spiritual  beauty,  brilliance  of  color,  simplicity  and 
devoutness  of  work. 

EARLY  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  1400-1500. 

Gentile  da  Fabriano  (i37o?-i428),  born  in  Fabriano,  is  the 
earliest  very  important  name.  He  was  under  Florentine 
influence.  His  work  bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of  Fra 
Angelico,  but  has  less  of  the  devotional  feeling. 

Gentile's  paintings  possess  a  very  cheerful  air  ;  the  figures 
are  full  of  grace,  despite  the  artist's  imperfect  knowledge  of 
foreshortening.  Gold  is  used  in  abundance  on  the  garments, 
and  the  technique  is  minute  and  most  delicate. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Adoration  of  the  Magi."     Academy,  Florence. 
Panels  in  Church  of  San  Niccolo,  Florence. 
"  Presentation  in  the  Temple."     Louvre,  Paris. 

Piero  della  Francesca  (1420-1492)  is  famous  as  a  writer  on 
higher  mathematics  and  the  laws  of  perspective  as  well  as 
painter.  His  work  is  affected  by  Florentine  influence.  It 
is  possible  that  he  was  under  the  instruction  of  Paolo  Uccello 
(see  Florentine  School).  He  was  one  of  the  artists  invited 

69 


70 


THE    WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


to  Rome  by  Pope  Nicholas  V,  whose  works  in  the  Vatican  were 
destroyed  in  order  to  make  room  for  the  frescoes  of  Raphael. 

Characteristics.  —  His  conceptions  are  broad  and  simple, 
his  figures  grand,  though  somewhat  ungainly,  and  clad  in 
quaint  parti-colored  costumes.  His  foreshortenings  are  fine. 

A  peculiar  type  is  seen  in  his  female  heads,  very  high  pro- 
jecting foreheads  and  broad  faces  with  wide  nostrils  and 
thick  lips. 

His  landscape  backgrounds  are  in  advance  of  others  of 
his  time  in  composition  and  general  treatment. 

Representative  works  : 

FRESCO.     Chapel  of  the  Relicts,  Church  of  San  Francesco  Rimini. 

Frescoes  illustrating 
the  miraculous 
legend  of  the  Holy 
Cross.  San  Fran- 
cesco, Arezzo. 

"Resurrectio  n." 
Monte  di  Pieta, 
Borgo  San  Sepol- 
cro. 

Pictures  in  Gallery, 
Perugia,  and 
Academy,  Venice. 

"  Baptism  of  Christ." 
National  Gallery, 
London.  This  is 
one  of  his  most 
beautiful  and  char- 
acteristic works. 


MELOZZO  DA  FORLI.    DECORATIVE  ANGEL. 
OF  ST.  PETER'S,  ROME. 


SACRISTY 


Melozzo  da  Forli 
(1438-1494)  is  im- 
portant both  as 
architect  and  painter.  He  was  a  fellow-pupil  of  Bramante  in 
Urbino  and  may  have  been  under  the  instruction  of  Piero  da 


ITALIAN  PAINTING. 


71 


Francesca.     His  work  is  bold  and  original,  and  possesses  a 
strongly  decorative  character.     His  angels,  grand  and  beau- 
tiful youthful  figures,  with  an  abundance  of  curling  hair  and 
clad  in  voluminous  draperies,  are  justly  famous. 
Most  important  works  : 

FRESCOES.     Vatican,  Rome. 
Angels.     Sacristy  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome. 

Representative    pictures   are   in    Berlin    Museum    and    National 
Gallery,   London. 

Perugino  (Pietro  Vanucci,  1446-1524),  born  at  Citta  della 
Pieva,  a  little  town  in  Umbria,  was  called  Perugino  because 
at  maturity  he  settled  in  Perugia,  established  an  academy, 
and  there  won  his  fame. 

Much  of  the  excel- 
lence of  his  work  is  due 
to  the  study  of  Floren- 
tine masters.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  artists 
in  central  Italy  to  han- 
dle the  new  oil  medium 
successfully. 

For  several  years  he 
was  the  master  of  Ra- 
phael. It  is  said  that 
no  pupils  ever  imitated 
a  master  so  closely  as 
did  those  of  Perugino  ; 
and  surely  Raphael  in 
his  earliest  works 
painted  completely  in 
his  style. 

Characteristics. — His 
pictures    are   pervaded   by   an   extremely   tender   religious 
feeling. 


PERUGINO.    ST.  JOHN  —  DETAIL  OF  CRUCIFIXION. 
S.  MADDALENA  DE'  PAZZI,  FLORENCE. 


72  THE    WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

His  composition  is  formal  and  conventional,  with  a  careful 
balancing  of  simple  masses. 

His  figures  are  always  quiet,  slender,  and  graceful,  but 
affected,  especially  in  the  placing  of  the  head  on  the  shoul- 
ders. This  mannerism,  when  once  observed,  causes  all  his 
work  to  be  readily  recognized. 

His  faces  are  sentimental ;  the  eyes  often  cast  upward 
with  a  wistful  look. 

His  coloring  is  very  rich,  warm,  and  transparent.  His 
early  work  is  by  far  his  best,  for  he  fell  into  a  habit  of 
repeating  himself  until  some  of  his  later  pictures  exhibit  a 
painful  mechanism.  His  greatest  works  are  his  frescoes. 

Representative  works  : 

FRESCO.     Sistine  Chapel  of  Vatican,  Rome. 

FRESCO.     "Crucifixion."     S.  Maddalena  de'  Pazzi,  Florence. 

Series  of  frescoes.     Sala  del  Cambio,  Perugia. 

"Assumption  of  the  Virgin."     Academy,  Florence. 

"Vision  of  St.  Bernard."     Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 

Altar-piece.  National  Gallery,  London.  On  the  wings  of  this  pic- 
ture are  the  figures  of  the  archangels  Michael  and  Raphael ; 
the  beauty  of  the  latter  has  been  thought  by  some  critics  to 
indicate  the  assistance  of  the  youthful  Raphael. 

Perugino's  easel  paintings  are  to  be  found  in  all  great  European 
art  galleries. 

Pinturicchio  (Bernardino  Betti,  1454-15 13), born  at  Perugia, 
was  a  friend  and  fellow-worker  of  Perugino.  His  art  name, 
Pinturicchio,  means  "  the  little  painter,"  and  was  given  him 
on  account  of  his  low  stature.  Sometimes  he  has  been 
called  //  Sordichio,  on  account  of  his  deafness. 

He  is  the  historical  painter  of  this  school  and  was  highly 
gifted.  He  was  a  perfect  master  of  mural  decoration  ;  never 
attempted  the  use  of  oil,  but  executed  all  his  paintings  in 
fresco  and  tempera.  In  some  of  his  work  he  is  supposed  to 
have  been  assisted  by  Raphael. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  73 

Characteristics.  —  His  paintings  are  a  series  of  story  tellings 
into  which  many  characters  are  introduced.  The  general 
spirit  is  cheerful,  even  gay  ;  the  invention  of  the  artist  seems 
endless.  He  was  an  intelligent  and  original  observer  of 
nature,  many  of  his  incidents,  in  both  subject  and  treatment, 
bordering  on  naturalism. 

In  type  of  figure  and  face  he  somewhat  resembles  Peru- 
gino,  though  less  sentimental  and  affected. 

His  landscape  backgrounds  are  filled,  even  crowded,  with 
architecture,  animals,  etc.  His  color  is  very  full  and  rich, 
and  admirably  preserved.  It  is  cooler  than  that  of  Perugino, 
as  he  was  very  fond  of  using  ultramarine.1 

Most  important  works  : 

Frescoes  representing  scenes  in  Life  of  Pope  Pius  II.     Cathedral 

Library,  Sienna. 

Series  of  frescoes.     Collegiate  Church,  Spello. 
FRESCOES.     S.  Maria  Aracoeli,  Rome. 

FRESCOES.     Sistine  Chapel  and  "  Appartamento  Borgia,"  Rome. 
Altar-piece.     Academy,  Sienna. 

Lo  Spagna  (Giovanni  di  Pietro,  —  -  1530)  is  the  greatest 
of  Perugino's  pupils  after  Raphael.  Few  circumstances  of 
his  life  are  known.  His  first  paintings  are  in  close  imita- 
tion of  Perugino,  but  later  ones  follow  the  style  of  Raphael. 
Some  of  the  works  now  attributed  to  Lo  Spagna  have 
hitherto  been  considered  to  be  youthful  efforts  of  Raphael. 
There  is  in  them  the  same  spiritual  elevation  and  delicacy  of 
beauty  that  mark  Raphael's  work.  Unfortunately  many  of 
his  frescoes  are  in  a  bad  state  of  preservation. 

Most  important  works  : 

FRESCOES  (scenes  from  the  Life  of  St.  James).     Spoleto. 
FRESCOES  (transferred  to  canvas).     Capitoline  Museum,  Rome, 
and  Louvre,  Paris. 

1 A  rich  blue  pigment. 


74  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

"  Madonna  Enthroned."     Church  of  St.  Francis,  Assisi. 
"  Adoration  of  the  Magi"  (called  "  Ancajani  Raphael,"  and  long 
attributed  to  Raphael).     Berlin  Museum. 


HIGH  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  1500-1600. 

Raphael  Sanzio  (1483-1520)  was  born  in  Urbino  and  is 
another  of  the  "  quartet  of  world-masters  of  painting."  His 
first  instructor  was  his  father,  Giovanni  Santi,  who  was  prob- 
ably a  pupil  of  Melozzo  da  Forli,  and  who  was  an  excellent 
painter.  Giovanni  Santi's  importance  in  this  school  has 
only  been  lately  recognized.  After  the  father's  death, 
which  occurred  when  Raphael  was  about  eleven  years  old, 
he  was,  doubtless,  for  a  time,  under  the  instruction  of  Timo- 
teo  Viti  (see  Bolognese  School,  p.  121).  This  accounts  for 
certain  marked  characteristics  of  this  northern  school  visible 
in  Raphael's  earliest  works. 

Afterward  he  entered  the  school  of  Perugino  in  Perugia, 
where  he  remained  for  several  years.  The  question  whether 
he  went  to  Sienna,  on  the  invitation  of  Pinturicchio,  and 
assisted  that  artist  in  his  work  there  is  not  definitely  settled, 
but  probabilities  indicate  that  this  was  the  case.  Then  he 
visited  Florence,  remaining  four  years,  where  he  was  brought 
into  contact  with  the  greatest  art  workers  and  masters  of 
Italy,  and  where  he  formed  that  intimacy  with  Fra  Barto- 
lommeo  that  was  so  beneficial  to  both  artists. 

In  1508  he  settled  in  Rome,  having  gone  thither  at  the 
request  of  the  art-loving  Pope  Julius  II,  and  lived  and 
painted  in  that  city  until  his  early  death. 

In  studying  the  life  and  work  of  Raphael  we  must  always 
remember  the  man  himself,  his  high  moral  and  intellectual 
character.  He  seems  to  have  been  from  his  childhood  a 
seeker  of  that  which  is  highest.  All  the  individual  traits  of 
intellectual  and  moral  life  were  admirably  balanced  in  him. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  75 

Although  he  may  well  be  called  an  "  Apostle  of  Beauty," 
the  beauty  he  portrays  seldom  approaches  the  sensuous  ;  it 
is  a  noble,  intellectual,  moral,  spiritual  beauty,  which  must 
have  had  its  counterpart  in  the  soul  of  the  artist.  From 
each  of  those  great  masters  whose  works  he  studied,  he 
assimilated  that  which  was  highest  and  best,  and  thus 
formed  a  style  peculiar  to  himself.  Whether  in  grand  dec- 
orative compositions,  in  lofty  ideal  conceptions,  in  the  treat- 
ment of  religious  subjects  or  in  the  highest  type  of  portraiture, 
he  is  always  the  great  master,  ever  struggling  to  attain  his 
high  ideal  —  the  perfection  of  beauty  and  truth.  No  other 
artist  has  ever  approached  him  in  the  number  of  noble  pic- 
tures painted  in  so  few  years  of  time. 

Raphael  lost  his  life,  probably,  owing  to  the  overwhelming 
amount  of  his  work.  It  is  thought  that  he  made  an  extraor- 
dinary effort  in  his  last  picture,  "The  Transfiguration," 
owing  to  the  rivalry  of  Sebastian  del  Piombo  (Venetian 
School),  whom  Michael  Angelo  is  said  to  have  pitted 
against  him  as  an  oil  painter.  He  died  on  his  thirty- 
seventh  birthday,  leaving  this  great  picture  unfinished. 

Characteristics.  —  We  often  hear  the  art  of  Raphael  com- 
pared with  that  of  Michael  Angelo,  but  there  can  be  no  real 
comparison  between  the  two  because  they  are  so  essentially 
opposed  one  to  the  other.  The  chief  element  of  Michael 
Angelo's  painting  is  the  portrayal  of  strength,  of  power  ; 
with  Raphael,  as  with  Greek  art,  the  whole  endeavor  is  to 
render  a  serene,  harmonious  beauty. 

Through  Michael  Angelo's  art  we  see  the  master's  own 
prodigious  personality  ;  in  Raphael's  we  feel  the  sum  of  all 
the  highest  influences  to  which  he  had  been  subjected. 

In  Raphael's  work  the  treatment  is  subordinate  to  the 
conception,  for  he  was  often  careless  in  execution. 

He  painted  in  three  great  styles  :  the  first,  Peruginesque, 
in  which  he  imitated  Perugino  very  closely ;  the  second, 


76 


THE    WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


RAPHAEL.     MADONNA  DI  SAN  SISTO      DRESDEN  GALLERY. 

Florentine,  used  very  soon  after  he  went  to  Florence,  and 
while  engaged  in  the  study  of  Florentine  art ;  and  the  third, 
Roman,  used  after  he  had  been  brought  into  close  contact 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  77 

in  Rome  with  Michael  Angelo.  By  far  the  larger  number 
and  the  most  important  of  his  works  are  painted  in  the 
Roman  style. 

It  is  difficult  to  designate  the  especial  characteristics  of 
Raphael's  style,  so  full  of  diverse  influences  is  it.  He 
gathered  up  all  the  excellencies  of  the  High  Renaissance 
and  embodied  them  in  himself.  His  work  is  marked  by 
noble  subjects,  fine  composition,  serene  landscape  back- 
grounds, correct  drawing,  true  perspective,  grace  and  natu- 
ralness of  the  human  figure,  beauty  and  gentleness  of 
expression,  pleasing  color,  and  excellent  chiaroscuro. 

Because  he  so  readily  assimilated  characteristics  of  other 
artists,  his  work  differs  at  various  times  in  his  life. 

His  early  Madonnas  are  fair-haired  young  matrons,  full 
of  grace  and  tenderness  ;  his  later  ones  have  dark  hair. 
Their  faces  are  very  feminine  (in  some  cases  weak),  oval, 
with  slender  chin,  straight  nose,  and  small  mouth. 

His  Child  Christs  possess  more  of  an  inexplicable  expres- 
sion than  other  artists  have  succeeded  in  representing  ; 
something  about  the  mouth  and  eyes  tells  that  this  child 
is  not  like  common  children.  This  expression  reaches  its 
height  in  the  Sistine  Madonna. 

His  cherubs,  a  reminiscence  of  Fra  Bartolommeo,  are 
most  engaging  and  artless. 

In  painting  many  of  his  pictures  he  was  assisted  by  pupils. 

Some  important  works : 

PERUGIXESQUE  STYLE. 

"  Coronation  of  the  Virgin."  Vatican  Gallery,  Rome.  Painted 
for  San  Francesco,  Perugia,  while  Raphael  was  yet  living  in 
that  city. 

"  La  Sposalizio,"  or  "  Marriage  of  the  Virgin."  Brera  Gallery, 
Milan. 


78  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

"  Madonna  del  Gran  Duca."  Pitti  Gallery,  Florence.  This  pic- 
ture was  painted  in  Florence  and  is  the  highest  type  possible 
to  the  Peruginesque  style.  It  received  its  name  from  having 
been  once  in  the  possession  of  a  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  who 
is  said  to  have  carried  the  picture  with  him  wherever  he  went, 
and  to  have  used  it  as  a  shrine  in  his  devotions. 

FLORENTINE  STYLE. 

"Madonna  del  Cardellino,"  or  "Madonna  with  the  Goldfinch." 

Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  La  Belle  Jardiniere."     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Ansidei  Madonna."     National  Gallery,  London. 
Portraits  of  Angelo  and  Maddalena  Doni.    Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 

ROMAN  STYLE. 

Frescoes  in  "  Raphael's  Stanze."  Vatican,  Rome.  In  these  the 
design  is  Raphael's  ;  some  of  the  painting  is  by  his  pupils. 

FRESCO.     "  Galatea."     Villa  Farnesina,  Rome. 

Cartoons  for  Tapestries.     South  Kensington  Museum,  London. 

"  The  Transfiguration."  Vatican  Gallery,  Rome.  One  of  the 
twelve  pictures  sometimes  called  "  World  Pictures  " l ;  left  un- 
finished at  Raphael's  death  and  completed  by  Julio  Romano. 
A  copy  in  mosaics  is  in  St.  Peter's,  Rome. 

"  Madonna  di  Foligno."     Vatican  Gallery,  Rome. 

"  Madonna  della  Sedia."     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  St.  Cecilia."     Gallery,  Bologna. 

"  Madonna  di  San  Sisto,"  one  of  the  twelve  pictures  sometimes 
called  "  World  Pictures." l  This,  the  most  famous  Madonna 
in  the  world,  was  painted  for  the  Church  of  San  Sisto  in 
Piacenza,  hence  its  name.  It  was  painted  wholly  by  Raphael 
—  his  last  Madonna.  In  it  we  see  a  divine  Mother  and  a 
divine  Child.  Pope  Sixtus  kneels  reverently  on  one  side,  and 
is  directing  the  attention  of  the  Madonna  to  a  crowd  of  wor- 
shippers outside  the  picture.  St.  Barbara  kneels  on  the  other 

1  See  p.  51. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  79 

side  with  bowed  head  and  downcast  eyes ;  below  are  the  two 
cherubs  so  well  known  through  reproduction.  Dresden. 

Portraits  of  Pope  Julius  II  and  Pope  Leo  X.  Pitti  Gallery, 
Florence.  Cardinal  Inghirami.  Fenway  Museum,  Boston. 

"  La  Donna  Velata."     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  Holy  Family  of  Francis  I."     Louvre,  Paris. 

"  La  Fornarina."     Barberini  Gallery,  Rome. 

Many  representative  pictures  are  in  all  European  galleries. 

Julio  Romano  (Giulio  Pippi,  1492-1546)  is  the  most 
eminent  of  Raphael's  scholars,  and  was  his  ablest  assistant. 
He  imitated  his  master  closely  so  long  as  he  wrought  with 
him,  but  after  the  death  of  the  latter  Romano's  work  grew 
coarse  and  extravagant. 

His  design  is  the  best  part  of  his  pictures.  He  is  want- 
ing in  sentiment,  his  coloring  is  dull  and  heavy  —  a  brick 
red  predominating  in  much  of  his  work.  His  influence  led 
toward  the  coming  decadence  of  Italian  art. 

Representative  works  : 

Frescoes  (under  Raphael)  in  Sala  di  Constantino,  Vatican,  Rome. 
FRESCOES.     Ducal  Palace,  Mantua,  and  in  Palazzo  del  Te,  near 

Mantua. 

Altar-piece.     San  Stefano,  Genoa. 
"  Apollo  and  Muses."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Holy  Family."     Dresden  Gallery. 
"  Education  of  Jupiter."     National  Gallery,  London. 
Several  pictures  in  Louvre,  Paris. 

Francesco  Primaticcio  (1504-1570)  and  Perino  del  Vaga 
(1500-1547)  are  other  followers  and  assistants  of  Raphael 
who  imitated  closely  that  master's  style  during  his  life,  but 
rapidly  degenerated  after  his  death.  Their  works  are 
strongly  decorative  in  character. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

ITALIAN    PAINTING. 


PADUAN    SCHOOL. 
EARLY  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  1400-1500. 

FOUNDED  by  Francesco  Squarcione. 

Characteristics.  —  Early  work  influenced  by  Giotto  ;  later 
allied  to  Venetian  School ;  marked  by  a  severe  study  of 
form  from  the  antique  ;  scientific  practice  of  linear  perspec- 
tive ;  a  mythological  tendency  in  subjects ;  good  expression 
and  fairly  good  color. 

Francesco  Squarcione  (1394-1474),  of  Padua,  is  more  noted 
as  a  teacher  than  artist.  He  was  at  the  head  of  one  of  the 
largest  schools  known  in  the  history  of  art.  His  scholars 
were  very  proud  of  him,  and  often  added  to  their  own  signa- 
tures "  the  pupil  of  Squarcione." 

The  foundation  of  the  school  was  a  study  of  ancient 
bas-relief. 

Squarcione  travelled  over  many  parts  of  Greece  and  all 
over  Italy  for  the  express  purpose  of  making  drawings  from 
the  most  valuable  examples  of  ancient  sculpture.  His 
house  was  one  of  the  chief  attractions  of  Padua,  and  his 
collection  of  drawings  and  casts  from  the  remains  of  antique 
sculpture  was  the  largest  and  most  celebrated  of  its  time. 

His  pupils  have  given  his  name  more  fame  than  has  his 
painting.  By  means  of  their  assistance  he  executed  a 
great  series  of  frescoes  in  the  Eremitani  chapel,  Padua, 
which  was  to  the  artists  of  northern  Italy  what  the  Brancacci 
Chapel,  Florence,  was  to  the  Florentine  painters. 

80 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  81 

Only  two  works  may,  according  to  best  modern  criticism,  be 
surely  ascribed  to  Squarcione.  These  belong  to  the  Lazzari 
family  of  Padua.  They  have  been  reproduced  by  Milanesi  in  his 
book  on  Squarcione. 

Andrea  Mantegna  (1431-1506),  born  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Padua,  is  the  greatest  name  of  this  school,  and  ranks 
with  Ghirlandajo,  Botticelli,  and  Filippino  Lippi,  of  the  Flor- 
entine, being  second  only  to  the  greatest  masters. 

His  story,  as  told  by  Vasari,  somewhat  resembles  that  of 
Giotto.  He  was  a  shepherd  boy,  but  having  very  early  in 
life  shown  an  aptitude  for  drawing,  he  attracted  the  notice 
of  the  master,  Squarcione,  who  not  only  took  him  for  a 
pupil,  but  adopted  him  as  a  son.  He  became  a  passion- 
ate lover  of  the  works  of  the  great  Florentine  sculptor, 
Donatello. 

He  married  a  sister  of  the  Venetian  painter,  Giovanni 
Bellini,  and  his  later  work  was  influenced  by  that  master. 

His  art  influence  was  felt  throughout  Italy. 

He  painted  diligently  through  life  and  left  many  works 
by  means  of  which  his  style  may  be  studied  to-day. 

He  takes  a  high  rank  among  the  first  Italian  engravers 
on  copper. 

Characteristics.  —  Mantegna's  style  of  design  is  so  closely 
drawn  from  antique  sculptures  that  many  of  his  early  com- 
positions possess  the  character  of  colored  bas-reliefs. 

His  later  work  combines  with  this  love  of  the  antique  an 
intense  realistic  tendency. 

His  pictures  impress  one  as  being  stiff,  austere,  and  lofty, 
although  permeated  often  by  a  passionate  warmth  of  feeling. 

His  figures  are  long  and  lean  ;  his  faces  solemn,  often 
tragic,  when  influenced  by  strong  emotions  ;  the  hair  long 
and  curling,  hands  short  and  fleshy  and  very  precise. 

His  draperies  are  composed  of  a  multitude  of  little  cling- 
ing folds  and  resemble  bronze  sculpture. 


82  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

His  backgrounds  are  often  filled  with  stately,  turreted 
architecture  ;  when  a  landscape  background  is  used,  there  is 
usually  a  steep  hill  surmounted  by  a  fortress,  with  a  path 
winding  up  to  it,  or  else  there  are  high,  jagged  rocks. 

He  loved  to  picture  detail,  and  his  work  vies  in  this 
respect  with  that  of  the  Flemish  masters. 

His  color  is  wanting  in  harmony. 

His  wall  paintings  are  in  tempera  on  dry  plaster. 

Most  important  works  : 

Wall  paintings.     Eremitani  Chapel,  Padua. 

Wall  paintings.  Ducal  Palace,  Mantua.  These  are  remarkable 
as  being  the  oldest  example  of  ceiling  painting  intended  to 
deceive  the  eye.  The  ceiling  appears  to  open  in  the  centre, 
and  one  seems  to  gaze  through  a  circular  balustrade  into  the 
open  sky.  On  the  upper  ledge  of  the  balustrade  a  peacock 
is  strutting  in  the  sunshine  ;  heads  of  women  and  children, 
the  latter  full  of  fun  and  roguery,  are  looking  across  to  each 
other.  Everything  is  drawn  in  most  accurate  perspective. 
This  work  undoubtedly  influenced  Correggio  (see  p.  HI)  in 
his  wall  decorations  in  the  convent  at  Parma. 

Series  of  nine  pictures  (originally  painted  for  the  decoration  of 
the  hall  or  theatre  of  the  Palace  of  San  Sebastiano,  Mantua). 
Hampton  Court,  England. 

Representative  pictures  are  in  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence  ;  Brera 
Gallery,  Milan ;  National  Gallery,  London. 

Bartolommeo  Montagna  (i45o?-i523),  of  Vincenza,  maybe 
placed  in  either  the  Paduan  or  the  Venetian  School,  since 
he  was  influenced  by  both  Mantegna  and  the  Bellini.  This 
artist  has  been  unfortunate  in  having  had  a  great  part  of  his 
now  known  works  attributed  to  other  painters.  Modern 
criticism  is  busy  with  him  at  present  and  is  fast  adding 
honor  to  his  name. 

Characteristics.  —  His  subjects  are  usually  groups  of  sacred 
characters,  Holy  Families,  etc. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  83 

His  drawing  is  free  and  sure,  his  figures  are  dignified,  and 
his  draperies  treated  with  considerable  breadth. 

Color  clear  and  rich,  with  low,  soft  tones. 

Angel  children  are  often  introduced,  playing  on  musical 
instruments. 

His  landscape  backgrounds,  most  carefully  executed,  are 
more  than  usually  attractive  and  indicate  a  poetic  fancy. 

Representative  works  : 

Altar-pieces.     Seminario,  Padua,  and  Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 

"  Ecce  Homo."     Louvre,  Paris. 

"  Madonnas."     National  Gallery,  London,  and  Berlin  Museum. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

ITALIAN    PAINTING. 


VENETIAN    SCHOOL. 
EARLY  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD^  1400-1500. 

THE  earliest  existing  color  work  in  Venice  is  in  the  form 
of  mosaics,  and  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  decoration 
of  the  Cathedral  of  San  Marco  (about  1070  A.D.).  No  exist- 
ing paintings  were  wrought  until  about  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Then  the  art  was  thoroughly  Byzantine 
in  character.  It  differs  little  from  the  early  Florentine 
(Gothic  Period)  save  that  it  shows  a  greater  feeling  for 
color. 

Characteristics.  —  Slight  evidence  of  study  of  antique. 
Subjects,  religious  and  portrait.  Full  of  devotional  spirit 
and  sentiment  until  after  Giovanni  Bellini.  Later  work  (High 
Renaissance)  marked  by  gorgeous  effects  of  color  and  beauty 
of  line.  Ideal  figures  appear  ;  devotional  spirit  becomes  sub- 
ordinate ;  physical  beauty  is  preeminent.  The  portrait  is  a 
prominent  feature.  Pure  landscape  painting  is  practised. 

Niccolo  Semitecolo  (about  1350)  produced  some  of  the 
earliest  existing  paintings,  and  may  be  studied  in  the 
Academy,  Venice. 

Antonio  Vivarini  (was  painting  1440)  was  evidently  influ- 
enced by  Fabriano  (see  Roman   School,  p.  69),  who  was 
invited  to  Venice  in  1420  to  decorate  a  hall  in  the  Ducal 
Palace.     His  works  abound  with  gilt  stucco  embossments 
and  gold  decorations. 

84 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  85 

Representative  works  : 

"Adoration  of  the  Kings."  Berlin  Museum. 
"  Four  Saints."  National  Gallery,  London. 
Altar-piece.  S.  Pantaleone,  Venice. 

Bartolommeo  Vivarini  (—  -  1 499)  was  a  brother  of  Anto- 
nio. His  works  show  much  independence  and  originality. 
In  them  we  see  the  beginnings  of  the  sense  of  color  so 
important  in  this  school.  There  is  a  certain  grandeur  in  his 
figures,  a  breadth1  in  draperies  and  a  fulness  of  color  that 
are  far  in  advance  of  anything  preceding  him.  Like  his 
brother,  he  used  many  gold  ornaments,  and  often  painted  on 
a  gold  ground. 

His  paintings  are  in  tempera,  but  possess  much  of  the 
force  of  oil. 

Representative  works  : 

"  St.  Augustine."     Church  of  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo,  Venice. 
Two  altar-pieces.     Church  of  the  Frari,  Venice. 
Altar-piece.     Museum,  Naples. 

Carlo  Crivelli  (was  painting  1468-1495)  shows  evidence  of 
having  been  under  the  influence  of  Squarcione  (Paduan 
School).  He  was  an  earnest  painter,  and  is  somewhat 
remarkable  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  some  of  his  works 
are  unmistakably  rude,  unattractive,  and  even  repellent, 
while  others,  especially  his  Madonnas,  are  full  of  tender 
feeling. 

Characteristics.  —  Figures  lean  and  poorly  drawn,  faces 
often  contorted  with  disagreeable  expression. 

He  used  gold  backgrounds  and  much  gold  in  details. 

His  method  of  painting  is  a  delicate  hatching.2 

Fruit,  flowers,  and  birds  are  freely  introduced  without 
regard  to  any  natural  effect. 

1  See  "  Technical  Terms  Used  in  Painting,"  p.  257.      2  Ibid.,  p.  258. 


86  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS, 

Representative  works : 

Altar-pieces.     Cathedral  and  San  Domenico,  Ascoli. 

Four  Saints.     Academy,  Venice. 

"  Annunciation."     National  Gallery,  London. 

"  Enthroned  Madonna,"  "  Three  Saints."     Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 

"  Entombment."     Vatican  Gallery,  Rome. 

Jacopo  Bellini  (1400?-!  464)  was  pupil  of  Gentile  da 
Fabriano  (Roman  School)  and  an  artist  of  greater  merit 
than  he  has  formerly  been  considered.  This  has  been 
proved  by  a  recently  discovered  sketchbook  (now  in  the 
Louvre,  Paris),  which  is  filled  with  most  interesting  and 
notable  sketches  (pen  drawings)  that  show  him  to  have 
been  an  enthusiastic  student  of  the  antique,  of  perspective, 
anatomy,  and  the  human  face.  His  drawing  is  exceptionally 
fine ;  his  color,  soft  and  clear. 

Most  important  works  : 

"Crucifixion."  Gallery,  Verona. 
"  Madonna."  Academy,  Venice. 
"  Madonna."  Tadini  Gallery,  Lovere.  All  these  pictures  have 

been  much  injured  by  restorations. 
Sketchbooks  in  Louvre,  Paris,  and  British  Museum,  London. 

Gentile  Bellini  (i426?-i5o7),  son  as  well  as  pupil  of 
Jacopo  Bellini,  went  when  young  from  Padua  to  Venice, 
and  gained  great  honor  in  that  city.  When  in  1479  Sultan 
Mahomet  applied  to  Venice  for  a  good  painter,  Gentile  was 
sent  to  Constantinople,  where  he  made  a  portrait  of  the 
Sultan,  beside  executing  several  other  commissions.  Re- 
turning to  Venice  he  painted  a  series  of  large  pictures  in 
the  Council  Hall  of  the  Ducal  Palace,  representing  scenes 
in  Venetian  history,  all  of  which  were  destroyed  by  the 
great  fire  of  1577.  His  existing  works  are  rare. 

Characteristics.  —  Gentile  Bellini  has  set  before  us  the 
contemporary  life  of  Venice  as  has  no  other  artist  or  his- 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  87 

torian.  He  represented  the  architectural  Venice  of  his  day 
and  against  it  pictured  processions  and  masses  of  people 
clad  in  rich  costumes  and  painted  in  a  careful,  exact  manner 
with  full,  warm,  harmonious  color.  These  he  rendered  with 
great  individuality  of  expression  and  action. 

After  his  return  from  Constantinople  he  often  introduced 
oriental  costumes  which  must  have  been  carefully  studied. 

Most  important  works : 

"  Procession  of  Corpus  Domini  in  Square  of  St.  Mark's "  and 
"  Miracle  of  the  True  Cross."  Academy,  Venice. 

"  Sermon  of  St.  Mark  "  (finished  by  Giovanni  after  his  brother's 
death).  Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 

Portraits.     Academy,  Venice;  Louvre,  Paris. 

Giovanni  Bellini  (1428-1516)  came  when  young  from  Padua 
to  Venice,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  long  life. 
He  was  taught  by  his  father  and  became  a  greater  painter 
than  either  his  father  or  brother.  He  was  a  continually 
growing  artist,  and  painted  his  best  pictures  when  aged. 

Mantegna  (Paduan  School)  was  his  brother-in-law  and 
friend,  and  some  of  his  earlier  pictures  can  hardly  be  dis- 
tinguished from  those  of  that  master,  while  his  later  ones  are 
filled  with  the  perfection  of  beauty  that  marks  the  High 
Renaissance.  He  attained  high  rank  as  a  portrait  painter. 
He  had  many  pupils,  among  them  Giorgione  and  Titian.  It 
was  during  his  lifetime  that  Antonello  da  Messina  intro- 
duced the  use  of  oil  painting  to  Italy.  Giovanni  learned 
this  from  Antonello,  and  in  return  taught  him  all  that  ever 
gave  him  any  reputation  as  a  painter. 

His  best  and  all  his  latest  works  are  painted  in  oils. 

Characteristics.  —  Subjects  are  mostly  religious,  and  often 
have  landscape  backgrounds,  for  which  he  evinced  great  love. 

His  figures  possess  much  dignity  and  serenity  ;  his  best 
Madonnas  are  really  majestic  as  they  lift  the  "  column  of 


88 


THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


their  throats "  and  hold  forth  the  Divine  Child  to  the 
worship  of  the  world. 

His  earlier  works  show  a  certain  hardness  ;  the  drapery  is 
angular  ;  the  anatomical  joinings  evident  in  hands  and  feet. 
In  his  later  works  all  these  defects  disappear. 

His  color  is  true  Venetian,  flooded  with  golden  light.  He 
paid  great  attention  to  the  detail  of  costumes  and  also  of  land- 


GIOVANNI  BELLINI.     DEAD  CHRIST  MOURNED  BY  ANGELS.     BERLIN  MUSEUM. 

scape,  picturing  with  fidelity  the  undulating  forms  of  distant 
hills  and  all  the  minutias  of  weeds  and  stones  in  the  fore- 
ground. 

Most  important  works : 

"  Madonnas.7'     San  Zaccaria  and  Church  of  the  Frari,  Venice. 

These  are  his  masterpieces. 
"  Madonna  and  Child  with  St.  George  and  St.  Paul."     Academy, 

Venice. 

"  St.  Jerome."     S.  Giovanni  Crisistomo,  Venice. 
Altar-piece.     "  Coronation  of  the  Virgin."    San  Francesco,  Pesaro. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  89 

"  Doge  Barbarigo  introduced  to  Madonna  by  St.  Mark  and  St. 

Augustine."     S.  Pietro  Martire,  Murano. 
"  Baptism  of  Christ."     S.  Corona,  Vicenza. 
Portrait.     National  Gallery,  London. 

Antonello  da  Messina  (1445  ?-i  493),  born  in  Sicily,  has 
probably  received  much  more  notice  on  account  of  his 
alleged  introduction  of  oil  painting  into  Italy  than  from 
his  painting,  though  his  portraits  really  deserve  high  rank. 
Vasari's  account  of  this  is  now  generally  discredited  by 
authorities.  He  says :  "  Antonello  degli  Antoni,  a  young 
painter  of  Messina,  commonly  called  AntoneJlo  da  Messina, 
saw,  in  the  possession  of  King  Alphonso  I  of  Naples,  a  pic- 
ture of  the  Annunciation  by  John  van  Eyck  (Flemish  School), 
and  being  struck  with  the  beauty  of  the  impasto1  set  out 
immediately  for  Bruges  in  order  to  discover  by  what  means 
it  was  produced.  He  obtained  the  secret  from  John  van 
Eyck,  and  remained  several  years  in  Flanders,  until  he  had 
mastered  the  process  ;  then  returned  to  Italy,  where  he 
gathered  about  himself  a  numerous  school,  and  spread  a 
general  knowledge  of  his  method." 

It  is  now  thought  probable  that  Antonello  gained  a  knowl- 
edge of  Flemish  methods  of  using  oils  from  Flemish  painters 
who  came  to  Italy,  and  afterward  introduced  its  use  into  the 
Venetian  School. 

Characteristics.  —  His  early  work  is  marked  by  Flemish 
characteristics,  being  very  minute  and  labored,  and  possess- 
ing the  red  color  that  predominates  in  the  Van  Eyck  pic- 
tures ;  his  later  is  strongly  influenced  by  Giovanni  Bellini. 

Representative  works : 

"  St.  Sebastian."     Gallery,  Dresden. 

"  Salvator  Mundi."     National  Gallery,  London. 

1  See  "Technical  Terms  Used  in  Painting,"  p.  258. 


90  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Portraits  in  Trivulzio  Collection,  Milan  ;  Borghese  Gallery,  Rome  ; 
Naples  Museum  (here  ascribed  to  Giovanni  Bellini)  ;  Berlin 
Museum  ;  and  Louvre,  Paris. 

Vittore  Carpaccio  (dates  of  life  unknown  ;  was  painting  from 
1490-1522)  is  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  contemporaries 
or  the  followers  of  the  Bellini,  and  combines  many  of  the 
delightful  characteristics  of  both  brothers.  Like  Gentile 
Bellini,  he  was  a  story-teller,  but  while  the  former  delighted 
in  picturing  historic  tales,  Carpaccio  reveled  in  those  of  a 
legendary  and  poetic  character.  He  treated  even  his  his- 
toric paintings  in  an  imaginative  way.  He  is  in  many  points 
inferior  to  the  Bellini  brothers,  but  is  extremely  quaint  and 
fascinating. 

Characteristics.  —  Composition  is  formal  and  stately.  Draw- 
ing is  often  faulty ;  his  figures  are  short-bodied ;  his  faces 
usually  homely  and  earnest.  Some  few,  however,  as  in  the 
Life  of  St.  Ursula,  are  thoroughly  charming.  He  followed 
Giovanni  Bellini's  habit  of  introducing  into  his  Madonna 
pictures  little  boy-angels  playing  on  musical  instruments. 

He  was  also  fond  of  introducing  animals,  such  as  dogs, 
monkeys,  and  birds  (especially  parrots). 

Most  important  works  : 

Series  of  nine   large    pictures    (scenes   in    Life  of   St.  Ursula). 

Academy,  Venice. 

"  Presentation  in  Temple."     Academy,  Venice. 
Series  of  Pictures.     Scuola  of  San  Giorgio  dei  Schiavoni,  Venice. 
"  Death  of  the  Virgin."     Gallery,  Ferrara. 
"  Enthroned  Madonna."     National  Gallery,  London. 

Cima  da  Conegliano  (Giovanni  Battista  Cima, 1517?) 

was  a  follower  of  Giovanni  Bellini. 

He  limited  himself  wholly  to  the  representation  of  devo- 
tional subjects,  such  as  the  Holy  Family  and  saints,  and 
these  he  treated  with  a  singular  impressiveness. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  91 

His  figures  of  male  saints  are  especially  grand ;  his 
Madonnas,  though  pleasing,  often  lack  character. 

Like  Giovanni  Bellini  and  Carpaccio,  he  had  the  habit  of 
introducing  little  boy-angels  playing  on  musical  instruments. 

His  landscape  backgrounds  rival  those  of  Giovanni  Bellini 
in  the  careful  rendering  of  detail.  He  often  introduced  the 
hills  of  Conegliano  and  its  rock  crowned  with  castellated 
towers. 

His  early  work  is  in  tempera  ;  his  later  in  oils. 

Representative  works: 

"  Baptism  of  Christ."     S.  Giovanni  in  Bragora,  Venice. 

"  St.  John  Baptist  and  Four  Saints."     S.  Maria  del  Orto,  Venice. 

"  Pieta."     Academy,  Venice. 

Two  Altar-pieces.     Gallery,  Parma. 

St.  Peter  Martyr.     Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 

"  Incredulity  of  St.  Thomas."     National  Gallery,  London. 

Alvise  Vivarini  ( 1503  ?)  was  also  under  the  influence 

of  Giovanni  Bellini  and  produced  noble  works  which  have 
long  been  unrecognized,  having  passed  under  the  names  of 
other  masters. 

His  subjects  are  religious  and  portrait. 

Representative  works : 

Altar-piece.     Academy,  Venice. 

Altar-piece  (probably  his  best  work).     Berlin  Museum. 

Altar-piece.     "St.    Ambrose    Enthroned  surrounded  by  Saints" 

(finished  after  Vivarini's  death  by  his  pupil,  Basaiti).     SS. 

Giovanni  e  Paolo,  Venice. 

Other  names  of  some  importance  belonging  to  this  time 
are  Andrea  Previtali  (1480?-! 525  ?);  Catena  (Vincenzo  di 
Biagio,  -  -1531),  who  painted  especially  fine  portraits; 
Pier  Francesco  Bissolo  (1464-1528);  and  Giovanni  Mansueti 
(1450? ). 


CHAPTER    X. 

ITALIAN    PAINTING. 


VENETIAN    SCHOOL    (Continued). 
HIGH  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  1500-1600. 

Giorgione  (Giorgio  Barbarelli,  1477-1511),  born  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Castelfranco,  received  the  name  by  which 
he  is  known  to-day  on  account  of  his  stature  ;  it  simply 
means  "big  George." 

No  artist  of  this  school  ranks  higher  to-day,  though  he 
lived  so  few  years,  and  there  are  in  existence  so  few  pictures 
known  surely  to  be  the  work  of  his  hands. 

He  was  a  fellow-pupil  of  Titian  in  the  studio  of  Giovanni 
Bellini,  and  seemed  to  exercise  a  stronger  influence  over 
this  master  than  did  Bellini  himself.  Indeed,  Giorgione  is 
especially  great  as  an  influence.  He  lives  more  through  the 
work  of  his  contemporaries  and  followers,  on  whom  he  im- 
posed his  own  powerful  personality,  than  through  his  own 
painting,  though  his  pictures  are  full  of  strength  and  charm. 

Characteristics.  —  He  wrought  a  great  change  in  Venetian 
painting,  both  in  conception  and  in  method  of  treatment. 

In  him  the  sentiment  of  art  was  made  second  to  its  artistic 
and  sensuous  development. 

Hitherto  the  subjects  had  been  removed  from  and  were 
higher  than  the  people  —  Madonnas,  saints,  and  high-born 
princes.  Giorgione  painted  the  fete,  the  concert,  the  philos- 
opher, and  the  shepherd.  The  subject  mattered  little  to 
him  provided  he  could  render  it  with  true  pictorial  beauty. 

92 


ITALIAN  PAINTING. 


93 


He  always  sacrificed  detail,  which  had  been  of  so  much 
value  in  earlier  Venetian  painting,  to  the  effect  of  the  whole. 

He  employed  few  figures  in  composition  ;  was  fond  of 
using  three. 

He  discarded  the  minute  treatment  of  landscape  seen  in 
Bellini's  work  and  painted  broad  sweeps  of  meadow,  purple 
mountains,  and  massed  architecture. 

His  painting  of  portrait  is  superb. 

His  color  possesses  in  the  highest  degree  the  glowing 
intensity  of  the  Venetian  School.  One  critic  has  said : 


GIORGIONB.    THB  CPNCERT.    PITTI  GALLERY,  FLORENCE. 

"  Titian's  color  looks  as  if  lighted  from  without ;  Giorgione's, 
as  if  lighted  from  within."  He  painted  in  tempera  and  then 
glazed  in  oil,  to  which  process  have  been  attributed  the 
superior  brilliance  and  transparence  of  his  colors. 

He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  really  imitate  the 
texture  of  draperies. 


94  THE    WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

There  is  no  artist  about  whose  authentic  works  there  has 
been  greater  controversy.  Only  a  very  few  are  given  to  him 
without  dispute. 

List  of  most  important  authentic  and  doubtful  works : 

Altar-piece.     "  Madonna,  Child,  and  Saints."     Castelfranco. 

"  Ordeal    by  Fire "   and   "  Judgment   of    Solomon "   (painted    in 

youth).     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Knight  of  Malta."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  The  Concert "   (thought  authentic  by  most  critics ;    attributed 

to  Titian  as  a  youthful  work,  by  Morelli).     Pitti  Gallery, 

Florence. 
"  Sleeping   Venus "    (until    recently   attributed   to   Titian.    The 

weight  of  authority  now  gives  it  to  Giorgione).     Dresden. 
"  Christ  Bearing  Cross."     Fenway  Museum,  Boston. 
"  Concert  Champetre  (disputed).     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Three  Philosophers  "  or  "  Astrologers."     Vienna  Gallery. 
"  Family  of  Giorgione."     Giovanelli  Palace,  Venice. 

Sebastian  del  Piombo  (Sebastiano  Luciani,  1485-1547)  was 
an  eminent  pupil  of  Giorgione.  Like  Raphael,  he  possessed 
a  most  sensitive,  artistic  nature,  which  readily  received 
strong  impressions  from  all  with  whom  he  was  brought  into 
close  contact ;  therefore  his  work  is  more  or  less  eclectic. 
First,  he  imitated  the  manner  of  Cima  da  Conegliano,  then 
was  powerfully  influenced  by  Giorgione.  Afterward,  going 
to  Florence,  he  fell  under  the  influence  of  Michael  Angelo, 
and  still  later,  in  Rome,  he  imitated  Raphael  so  successfully 
that  several  works  which  have  hitherto  been  regarded  as 
Raphael's  are  now  attributed  to  Sebastian. 

His  coloring  is  always  Venetian  ;  his  conceptions  and 
design  often  thoroughly  Florentine. 

Most  important  works  : 

"Raising  of  Lazarus."  National  Gallery,  London.  This  is  a 
noble  picture  and  the  artist's  greatest.  It  is  said  that  Michael 
Angelo  assisted  him  in  the  drawing  of  Lazarus  in  the  hope 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  95 

that  the  picture  might  excel  "  The  Transfiguration,"  by 
Raphael,  which  was  painted  at  the  same  time.  Both  pictures 
were  by  the  order  of  the  Bishop  of  Narbonne,  afterward 
Pope  Clement  VII. 

"  Visitation."     Louvre,  Paris. 

"  Martyrdom  of  St.  Agatha."     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  The  Fornarina  "  (hitherto  ascribed  to  Raphael,  now  given  by 
many  critics  to  Del  Piombo).  Ufifizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

Portrait  of  Andrea  Doria.     Doria  Gallery,  Rome. 

"  The  Violin  Player  "  (hitherto  ascribed  to  Raphael).  Formerly 
in  Sciarra  Gallery,  Rome.  Present  place  unknown. 

Wall  Paintings.     S.  Pietro  in  Montorio,  Rome. 

Titian  (Tiziano  Vecellio,  1477-1576),  born  in  Cadore, 
among  the  Italian  Alps,  is  the  fourth  name  in  the  so-called 
quartet  of  world-masters  of  painting.  He  came  when  a 
boy  to  Venice,  where  he  entered  the  studio  of  the  Bellini 
brothers  and  became  a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Bellini  and  a 
fellow-pupil  of  Giorgione,  by  whom  he  was  more  strongly 
influenced  than  by  the  master  himself. 

Titian  has  been  always  accounted  the  greatest  of  the 
Venetian  painters.  The  art  of  Venice  is  not,  however,  that 
of  Florence,  and  we  do  not  find  the  greatness  of  Titian 
reaching  such  heights  as  that  of  Michael  Angelo  and 
Raphael,  or  even  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

Titian  is  great  in  color  ;  he  is  great  also  in  every  techni- 
cal quality  necessary  to  the  thorough  furnishing  of  the  artist. 

His  art  life  was  one  of  long  triumph.  For  a  short  time 
he  painted  in  the  court  of  Ferrara,  but  soon  returned  to 
Venice,  where  he  spent  all  his  remaining  years.  Here  he 
received  every  emolument  possible.  Fame,  riches,  friends, 
and  honors  crowded  upon  him.  Kings  and  princes  would 
have  their  portraits  painted  by  no  other  hand. 

His  religious  pictures  were  mostly  painted  in  his  youth. 
In  his  later  work  we  find  many  classic  or  mythological 


96 


THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


themes,  much  portrait  painting,  and  that  style  of  fancy 
female  figures  that  had  its  origin  with  him,  and  which  is  so 
evident  a  mark  of  the  degeneracy  of  Italian  art  when  we 
see  it  attempted  by  his  mediocre  followers. 

He  also  painted  some  purely  landscape  pictures,  a  new 

art  feature  of  this 
time. 

Characteristics. — 
There  is  little  of 
the  spiritual  ideal 
in  Titian's  work ;  he 
is,  emphatically,  the 
painter  of  human- 
ity ;  not  common 
humanity,  but  high- 
born humanity. 

In  his  religious 
pictures  we  do  not 
find  the  effort  to 
portray  spiritual 
feeling;  the  picture 
seems  to  have  been 
conceived  only  to 
represent  a  group 
of  noble,  tranquil, 
magn  if  icently 
painted  people. 

His  church  pic- 
tures are  some  of  the  most  gorgeous  in  art.  They  are 
thoroughly  Venetian  in  spirit,  filled  with  columns,  banners, 
superb  priestly  robes,  and  princely  costumes,  and  glow  with 
richest  harmonies  of  color. 

His  composition  at  its  best  is  unsurpassed,  for  he  com- 
posed everything  in  his  picture,  —  line,  mass,  color,  light  and 


TITIAN.     CATHERINE  CORNARO. 
GALLERY,  FLORENCE. 


UFFIZI 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  97 

shade,  —  all  balance  most  perfectly.  His  handling 1  is  bold, 
free,  and  rapid ;  detail  is  wholly  subordinated  to  general  effect. 

His  portraits,  perhaps  the  most  noted  in  art,  are  always 
courtly,  dignified,  high-bred  men  and  women,  and  are  ren- 
dered particularly  attractive  by  the  wonderful  quality  of 
breadth  of  color  and  light  that  fills  the  canvas.  His  draw- 
ing is  sometimes  weak  ;  the  contours  of  face  are  often  lack- 
ing in  subtility,  while  the  hands  are  swollen  and  puffy. 

His  landscapes  are  marked  by  the  grand  Alpine  scenery 
amidst  which  he  was  born,  and  are  often  rendered  impres- 
sive by  clouds  and  storms. 

With  him  began  the  fashion  of  painting  fancy  female 
portraits  and  Venuses. 

Most  important  works  : 

"  Assumption  of  the  Virgin."  Academy,  Venice.  This  is  num- 
bered among  the  twelve  pictures  sometimes  called  "  World 
Pictures."  2 

"  Presentation  of  the  Virgin."     Academy,  Venice. 

"Venuses,"  "Flora,"  and  portraits  of  Duke  and  Duchess  of 
Urbino  and  Catherine  Cornaro.  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  La  Donna  Bella"  and  portraits  of  Philip  II  and  poet  Aretinus. 
Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  Sacred  and  Profane  Love,"  sometimes  called  "  Artless  and  Sated 
Love."  Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 

"  Entombment,"  "  WToman  at  Toilet."     Louvre,  Paris. 

"  Bacchus  and  Ariadne."     National  Gallery,  London. 

"  Titian's  Daughter."     Berlin  Museum. 

Portrait  of  Emperor  Charles.     Madrid  Gallery. 

Palma  Vecchio  (Jacopo  Palma,  i48o?-i528),  called  // 
Vecchio  (The  Elder),  to  distinguish  him  from  a  grandnephew 
who  also  was  a  painter,  takes  a  deservedly  high  rank  in  this 
school,  though  he  is  not  equal  to  its  greatest  masters. 

1  See  "  Technical  Terms  Used  in  Painting,"  p.  258. 

2  See  p.  51. 


98  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Characteristics.  —  His  works  show  the  influence  of  Gio- 
vanni Bellini,  Giorgione,  and  Titian.  They  possess  all  the 
important  characteristics  of  Venetian  painting  ;  are  mostly 
personations  of  sacred  characters  ;  grand,  stately,  marked 
by  much  amplitude  of  form  and  drapery,  and  richly  colored. 
They  have  often  passed  under  the  name  of  Titian. 

The  face  and  figure  of  a  favorite  model  constantly  recur 
in  his  work,  a  model  whom  Titian  must  also  have  used.  This 
was  formerly  said  to  be  Palma's  daughter  and  was  called  Vio- 
/anfe,  until  it  has  been  proved  that  he  had  no  daughter. 

He  painted  in  three  distinct  manners,  distinguished  as 
the  Bellinesque,.the  Giorgionesque,  and  the  blonde. 

Most  important  works  : 

Altar-piece.  "St.  Barbara"  (Giorgionesque  manner).  Santa 
Maria  Formosa,  Venice.  This  is  the  artist's  masterpiece. 
In  the  centre,  St.  Barbara  (patroness  of  the  Venetian  gunners), 
crowned  and  bearing  the  palm,  stands  on  a  pedestal  on  either 
side  of  which  is  a  cannon.  .Beside  her  are  St.  Sebastian  and 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  St.  Anthony  and  St.  Dominick  ;  above 
is  a  lunette,  in  which  is  painted  a  dead  Christ  (or  Pieta).  St. 
Barbara  is  one  of  the  grandest  figures  in  art ;  her  massive 
form  and  broad,  sweeping  draperies  are  characteristic  of  the 
artist.  The  color  is  a  superb  scale  of  reds. 

"  Tobias  and  Angel  "  (Bellinesque  manner).     Stuttgart  Gallery. 

"  The  Three  Sisters  "  and  "  Venus  "  (blonde  manner).  Gallery, 
Dresden. 

"  Santa  Conversazione."     Gallery,  Naples. 

"  La  Bella "  (formerly  attributed  to  Titian).  Sciarra  Palace, 
Rome. 

"  Adoration  of  Shepherds "  (Giorgionesque  manner).  Louvre,' 
Paris. 

Representative  pictures  are  in  all  European  galleries. 

Lorenzo  Lotto  (i476?-i556)  is  an  artist  about  whom  com- 
paratively little  has  been  hitherto  known,  but  who  is  rapidly 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  99 

growing  in  importance  in  the  opinion  of  most  competent 
critics.  He  was  one  of  those  sensitive  painters  who  quickly 
feel  the  influence  of  contemporaries,  yet  he  retained  a 
charming  individuality  that  marks  his  works.  This  is  a 
subtile  appreciation  of  the  inner  feelings  or  emotion  of  his 
figures  —  a  depth  of  expression  that  is  shown  in  face  and 
gesture,  and  that  gives  more  vivacity  to  his  pictures  than 
is  usual  in  Venetian  art.  Sometimes  this  is  exaggerated 
almost  to  affectation. 

His  portraits  are  especially  fine  ;  they  are  characterized 
by  a  peculiar  greenness  of  shadow. 

Representative  works  : 

Altar-pieces.  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo  and  Church  of  the  Carmine, 
Venice. 

Altar-piece.     Gallery,  Ancona. 

Portraits.  Brera  Gallery,  Milan  ;  Gallery,  Vienna;  National  Gal- 
lery, London  ;  Hampton  Court,  England. 

"The  Three  Stages  of  Life"  (believed  by  Morelli  to  be  by  Gior- 
gione).  Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 

Tintoretto  (Jacopo  Robusti,  1518-1594),  born  in  Venice 
and  called  Tintoretto  (little  dyer)  from  the  trade  of  his  father, 
is  said  to  have  been  at  one  time  a  pupil  in  the  studio  of 
Titian,  who  sent  him  home  at  the  end  of  three  days,  saying 
that  he  "  never  would  be  anything  but  a  dauber."  Some 
writers  have  attributed  this  action  to  Titian's  jealousy,  but 
it  is  difficult  to  believe  this  to  have  been  the  case.  There, 
however,  could  have  been  few  pupils  in  the  studio  who 
would  have  shown  greater  ability,  judging  from  after  results. 

Tintoretto  is  one  of  the  boldest  and  most  assured  paint- 
ers known  in  the  history  of  art.  He  was  so  rapid  with  his 
brush  that  he  was  called  //  Furioso  by  his  contemporaries. 
He  painted  in  Venice  through  his  long  life,  and  his  pictures 
are  all  over  the  city.  It  is  only  here  that  he  ought  to  be 


100 


THE    WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


studied.  These  paintings  are  astonishing  both  in  number 
and  size.  The  Venetians  did  not  care  for  fresco,  preferring 
to  cover  the  walls  and  ceilings  of  their  immense  halls  with 
oil  paintings,  and  Tintoretto  furnished  many  of  these. 

No  such   diversity  of   opinion  has  ever  existed  regard- 
ing the  merit  of  any  other  painter.     Vasari  declares  that 


TINTORETTO.    MARRIAGE  OF  ARIATJNK  AND  BACCHUS.    DUCAT.  PALACE,  VENICK. 

he  executed  his  pictures  by  haphazard,  without  design, 
as  if  he  desired  to  show  that  art  is  but  a  jest,  while  Mr. 
Ruskin  sets  him  side  by  side  with  Michael  Angelo,  and 
that  without  in  the  least  disparaging  that  great  master's 
claim  to  the  highest  admiration  of  all.  Between  these 
so  diverse  judgments  intelligent  popular  opinion  of  the 
day  places  this  artist.  Without  doubt  he  was  a  careless 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  101 

painter,  for  all  degrees  of  merit  may  be  seen  through  his 
mass  of  works.  His  ability,  however,  must  be  judged  by 
his  best,  and  this  puts  him  unmistakably  among  the  greatest 
of  Venetian  masters. 

Characteristics.  —  Subjects  mostly  religious,  mythological, 
and  portrait.  Inventive  and  dramatic  power  of  representa- 
tion wonderful.  He  was  a  story-teller  and  loved  to  combine 
many  incidents  within  one  picture. 

He  attempted  to  follow  both  the  Florentine  and  Venetian 
schools,  —  to  draw  like  Michael  Angelo,  and  to  color  like 
Titian.  While  possessing  much  of  the  force  of  the  former, 
he  lacked  that  master's  dignity  of  motion. 

Some  of  his  figures  are  the  most  headlong,  the  most 
impetuous  in  the  world  of  art.  This  action  is  one  of  his  most 
marked  characteristics.  He  even  makes  his  light  and  shade 
a  power  in  the  movement  of  his  pictures. 

His  color  is  very  variable  ;  sometimes  rivalling  the  richest 
productions  of  his  school ;  sometimes  wholly  wanting  in 
force. 

His  portraits  are  fine  beyond  all  question. 

Most  important  works  : 

Fifty-seven  large  paintings  (most  noted  of  which  is  the  "  Cruci- 
fixion ")  Scuola  di  San  Rocco,  Venice.  This  is  one  of  the  four 
most  famous  art  buildings  in  the  world  ;  the  other  three  being 
the  Brancacci  Chapel  of  Santa  Maria  del  Carmine,  Florence  ; 
the  Sistine  Chapel  of  the  Vatican,  Rome,  and  the  Arena 
Chapel,  Padua. 

Several  pictures  in  S.  Maria  del  Orto,  Venice  ;  among  which 
are  "  The  Last  Judgment  "  (so  extolled  by  Mr.  Ruskin)  ; 
the  "Presentation  of  the  Virgin"  (painted  in  competition 
with  that  by  Titian  in  Academy),  and  "  Miracle  of  St. 
Agnes." 

Some  twenty-three  authentic  works  in  Ducal  Palace,  Venice  ; 
among  which  are  "  Paradise,"  the  largest  oil  painting  in  the 


102  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

world  (30  feet  by  74  feet),  containing  some  five  hundred 
figures  ;  "  Bacchus  and  Ariadne  ;"  "  The  Graces  ;"  "  Minerva 
driving  away  Mars,"  and  "  Forge  of  Vulcan." 

"Miracle  of  St. -Mark"  (his  masterpiece),  "Death  of  Abel," 
"  Adam  and  Eve."  Academy,  Venice. 

Representative  portraits  are  in  Pitti  and  Uffizi  Galleries,  Flor- 
ence ;  Academy,  Venice  ;  Gallery,  Vienna  ;  Gallery,  Cassel ; 
Colonna  Gallery,  Rome. 

Paul  Veronese  (Paolo  Cagliari,  1528-1588),  born  in  Verona, 
followed  the  principles  practised  by  the  greatest  Venetian 
masters,  but  originated  a  certain  magnificence  of  style 
peculiar  to  himself.  His  pictures  are  distinguished  by 
crowds  of  people  arrayed  with  all  the  pomp  and  splendor 
that  imagination  can  conceive  or  color  accomplish,  while  in 
his  backgrounds  are  piles  of  architecture  of  a  vastness  and 
richness  without  parallel  in  reality  or  in  art.  He  set  before 
us  the  old  magnificent  Venetian  life  in  all  its  glory  and 
intoxicating  pleasures,  and  in  this  kind  of  picture  he  seems  to 
have  delighted  most  ;  for  even  when  he  treated  more  serious 
subjects  and  attempted  to  portray  deep  feeling,  although  he 
evidently  possessed  a  discriminating  perception  of  character 
and  sometimes  expressed  it,  yet  he  violated  taste  by  paint- 
ing every  scene,  lofty  or  humble,  sacred  or  secular,  with  the 
pomp  of  splendor  and  the  richness  of  ornament,  which  were 
the  fashion  of  his  time. 

He  was  much  more  careful  in  drawing  than  was  Tintoretto, 
and  his  color  possesses  a  brilliant  transparence  unequalled 
in  his  school. 

He  had  a  habit  of  introducing  portraits  of  his  friends, 
himself,  his  family,  and  domestic  animals  into  even  his  most 
sacred  pictures. 

Most  important  works  : 

"  Marriage  of  Cana."  Louvre,  Paris.  This  picture  covers  six 
hundred  square  feet,  and  contains  one  hundred  and  thirty 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  103 

life-size  figures,  many  of  which  are  portraits  of  some  of  the 
most  distinguished  people  of  the  time,  including  Veronese's 
fellow-artists,  all  arrayed  in  gorgeous  costumes.  The  princi- 
pal figures,  Christ  and  his  mother,  though  in  the  centre  of 
the  picture,  seem  quite  in  the  background. 

Series  of  pictures.     San  Sebastiano,  Venice. 

"  Triumph  of  Venice,"  "  Rape  of  Europa."  Ducal  Palace, 
Venice. 

"  Feast  of  the  Levite."     Academy,  Venice. 

"  Family  of  Darius."     National  Gallery,  London. 

"  Feast  at  the  House  of  Simon."     Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 

Bonifazio  I,  called  Bonifazio  Veronese  ( 1540),  Boni- 

fazio  II  (—  -1553),  and  Bonifazio  III,  called  Bonifazio 
Veneziano  are  also  names  of  some  note  in  this  school. 
Especially  is  this  the  case  with  Bonifazio  Veronese,  who  is 
rapidly  advancing  in  importance  as  his  works  are  better 
known.  Many  of  them  are  still  catalogued  under  the  names 
of  other  artists. 

Representative  works  are : 

"  Finding  of  Moses."     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  Madonna  and  Archangel  Raphael  with  Tobias."     Ambrosiana, 

Milan.     Both  of  these  pictures  were  formerly  attributed  to 

Giorgione. 
"  Madonna  and  Child  with  Saints."     National  Gallery,  London. 

Other  noted  names  are  Pordenone  (1483-1540),  who  fol- 
lowed Giorgione  and  Titian;  Paris  Bordone  (1495-1570), 
especially  noted  for  portrait  painting ;  and  the  Bassano  fam- 
ily, of  which  Jacopo  (often  called  Jacopo  da  Ponte)  is  by 
far  the  most  important.  He  chose  subjects  into  which  he 
could  largely  introduce  landscape  with  its  accessories,  ani- 
mals and  still  life. 

Mention  must  also  be  made  of  Moretto  (1498-1555),  who 
was  born  and  painted  in  Brescia,  but  followed  the  Venetian 
School,  and  his  pupil  Moroni  ( 1578),  who  is  especially 


1(H  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

noted  for  fine  portraits,  some  of  which  have  until  lately  been 
attributed  to  Titian. 

In  the  decadence  of  Venetian  art  some  of  the  most 
important  names  are  Jacopo  Palma  (//  Giovine,  1544-1628), 
who  followed  Tintoretto;  II  Padovanino  (1590-1650),  who 
endeavored  to  follow  Titian  and  Veronese  ;  Gian  Battista 
Tiepolo  (1692-1770),  one  of  the  best  painters  of  this  time, 
a  fine  colorist  and  fresco  painter  ;  and  Pietro  Longhi  ( — 
1762),  who  painted  genre  pictures  and  has  sometimes  been 
called  the  Venetian  Hogarth. 


CHAPTER    XL 

ITALIAN    PAINTING. 


FERRARESE    SCHOOL. 
EARLY  AND  HIGH  RENAISSANCE  PERIODS. 

Characteristics.  —  Early  painting,  influenced  by  the  early 
Paduan  School,  of  minor  importance ;  later  allied  to  the 
Bolognese  School  and  influential  in  the  art  of  central  Italy. 
Early  style,  stiff,  mannered,  with  close  rendering  of  detail  ; 
later,  full  of  sentiment  and  refinement,  excelling  in  chiaro- 
scuro and  color  ;  fine  landscape  backgrounds. 

Subjects  sacred  and  mythological. 

EARLY  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  1400-1500. 

Cosimo  Tura  (1420-1495)  was  probably  a  pupil  of  Squar- 
cione,  of  the  Paduan  School.  His  work  is  quaint,  full  of 
anatomical  coarseness,  and  labored  in  detail,  but  is  usually 
correct  in  drawing  and  gives  the  impression  of  life  and 
energy.  When  architecture  is  introduced,  it  is  fantastic  and 
much  ornamented  by  colored  marbles  and  even  metals. 

His  color  is  crude  (yellows,  reds,  and  greens  predomi- 
nating) and  lacks  harmony  ;  his  draperies  are  very  strongly 
marked  and  angular. 

Most  important  works  : 

"  Annunciation,"  "  St.  George  and  the  Dragon,"  and  "  St.  Jerome." 

Gallery,  Ferrara. 

"  Madonna  and  Saints."     Berlin  Museum. 

105 


106  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

"  Dead  Christ."     Louvre,  Paris. 

"  Madonna  with  sleeping  Child  and  Saints."     National  Gallery, 
London. 

Francesco  Cossa  (was  painting  1450-1474)  was  a  stronger 
painter  than  Cosimo  Tura.  Leaving  Ferrara  in  middle  life, 
he  went  to  Bologna  and  there  influenced  and  was  influenced 
by  the  Bolognese  School. 

His  pictures  are  marked  by  originality  and  strength,  and 
show  a  higher  development  of  all  art  qualities  than  do  those 
of  Tura.  His  draperies  are  well  arranged  ;  his  color  soft 
and  his  detail  less  painfully  rendered. 

Representative  works : 

Altar-piece.     Gallery,  Bologna. 

"  Twelve  Apostles."     San  Petronio,  Bologna. 

"  St.  Vincentius  Ferrer."     National  Gallery,  London. 

Ercole  Robert!  de'  Grand!  (was  painting  1475-1496)  is  very 
imperfectly  known.  His  work  shows  the  influence  of  Man- 
tegna  of  the  Paduan  School,  and  of  Giovanni  Bellini  of  the 
Venetian.  It  is  supposed  that  he  accompanied  Cossa  to 
Bologna. 

Few  pictures  are  surely  known  to  be  his,  but  these  are 
fine  in  design  and  execution ;  critics  are  much  interested  in 
studying  him  at  present. 

Works  thought  to  be  authentic : 

Drawing,  "  Massacre  of  the  Innocents."     Louvre,  Paris. 
Altar-piece.     Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 

"Gathering  of  the  Manna,"  "Christ  on  the  way  to  Golgotha," 
"  Taking  down  from  the  Cross."     Gallery,  Dresden. 

Lorenzo  Costa  (i455?-i535)  is  one  of  the  principal  repre- 
sentatives of  this  school  as  influenced  by  the  Bolognese. 
He  spent  most  of  his  life  in  Bologna,  and  there  gained  great 
influence  over  Francia,  with  whom  he  painted  (see  Bolognese 
School). 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  107 

He  was  a  more  refined  painter  than  his  predecessors, 
though  his  earliest  works  show  the  hard  outlines,  crude 
color,  and  stiff  figures  of  Cosimo  Tura  ;  his  later  ones  are 
delicate  in  drawing,  excellent  in  color,  soft  in  light  and  shade 
and  detail. 

His  sentiment  is  of  a  high  order,  even  tending  toward 
the  poetic.  It  reminds  one  of  Perugino  (Roman  School). 

His  landscape  backgrounds  are  particularly  pleasing, 
showing  softly  swelling  valleys  and  distant  blue  mountains, 
and  are  enlivened  by  incidents. 

He  painted  some  good  portraits. 

Representative  works : 

Altar-pieces.     San  Giovanni  in  Monte,  Bologna. 
Paintings  in  Chapel  of  St.  Cecilia,  Bologna. 
Altar-piece.     Academy,  Bologna. 

"  Court  of  Isabella  d'Este  "  (an  allegory).     Louvre,  Paris. 
Several  pictures  in  Berlin  Museum. 

Francesco  Bianchi  (—  —1510)  is  especially  interesting  in 
the  history  of  painting,  because  he,  in  1480,  established 
himself  in  Modena,  where  he  founded  a  school,  which  pro- 
duced Correggio. 

His  work  resembles  in  its  detail  that  of  Costa  and  Roberti 
de'  Grandi,  but  his  color  and  chiaroscuro  are  more  delicate. 

Representative  works  : 

"Annunciation."     Gallery,  Modena. 
Altar-piece.     Louvre,  Paris. 

Ercole  Grandi  di  Giulio  Cesare  (—  -1531)  was  a  pupil  in 
the  school  of  Lorenzo  Costa  and  Francia,  at  Bologna,  but 
was  influenced  most  strongly  by  Costa.  His  figures  are 
very  refined,  graceful,  and  pleasing,  but  he  was  of  compara- 
tively little  importance  in  the  development  of  the  Ferrarese 
School. 


108  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Representative  works : 

Eight  pictures  in  tempera,  formerly  in  Constabili  Collection, 
Ferrara,  now  scattered  ;  two  are  in  collection  of  Sir  Henry 
Layard,  Venice ;  four  in  private  collection,  Milan  ;  one  in 
Gallery,  Bergamo  ;  and  one  in  England. 

"  Pieta  "  and  "  St.  Sebastian."     Gallery,  Ferrara. 

HIGH  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  1500-1600. 

Dosso  Dossi  (Giovanni  di  Lutero,  1479-1542),  of  Ferrara, 
was  in  his  later  work  influenced  by  the  Venetian  masters. 
Although  his  pictures  are  distinctively  Ferrarese,  yet  they 
surpass  all  former  ones  of  his  school  in  richness  of  color 
and  a  certain  luxuriousness  of  sentiment. 

He  painted  many  mythological  and  fanciful  subjects, 
placing  his  figures  in  particularly  fine  landscape  settings. 

He  also  excelled  in  portraits,  many  of  which  are  worthy 
rivals  of  Titian's. 

Representative  works  : 

Altar-piece.     "  Madonna  and  Saints."     Gallery,  Ferrara. 
"Coronation  of  Virgin,"  "  St.  George,"  "Archangel  Michael  war- 
ring against  Satan."     Gallery,  Dresden. 
"  Bacchanal."     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Circe."     Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 
Portraits.     Gallery,  Modena. 
"  St.  Sebastian."     Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 

Garofalo  (Benvenuto  Tisi,  1481-1559),  so  called  from  the 
town  of  his  birth,  was  at  first  strongly  influenced  by  the 
greater  Ferrarese  artists  ;  later  he  visited  Rome  and  fell 
under  the  influence  of  Raphael.  His  early  works  are  his 
strongest,  as  his  Roman  manner  is  marked  by  a  fondness 
for  quiet  beauty  of  expression  that  is  often  mannered  and 
insipid.  He  was  called  by  his  countrymen  the  Ferrarese 
Raphael. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  109 

Characteristics.  —  He  often  introduced  a  choir  of  singing 
angels  in  the  air.  His  coloring  is  less  pure  and  strong  than 
that  of  Dosso  Dossi ;  he  had  a  fondness  for  putting  some- 
where in  the  picture  a  peculiar  light  straw  color. 

His  landscape  backgrounds  are  always  Ferrarese ;  a  man- 
nerism in  many  of  them  is  a  peculiar  distribution  of  light 
and  color ;  a  yellow  streak  of  sunshine  runs  straight  through 
the  middle  distance,  while  the  sky  is  dull  red  towards  the 
horizon. 

Very  many  of  this  artist's  works  (mostly  small  easel  pic- 
tures) are  in  the  European  galleries. 

Representative  works : 

Series  of  Pictures,  Gallery,  Ferrara. 

"  Descent  from  the  Cross,"  "  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds."     Bor- 

ghese  Gallery,  Rome. 

"  Salutation,"  "  Adoration  of  the  Child."     Doria  Gallery,  Rome. 
"  Madonna  in  Glory."     Academy,  Venice. 
Mythological  Pictures.     Gallery,  Dresden. 
"  Madonna  and  Child  with  Saints."     National  Gallery,  London. 

Correggio  (Antonio  Allegri,  1494-1534),  so  called  from  his 
birthplace,  a  little  town  near  Modena,  is  an  artist  concerning 
whose  youth  and  study  much  has  been  said  and  little  known. 
By  highest  authority  at  present  time,  he  is  considered  to 
have  been  early  a  pupil  of  Bianchi  at  Modena,  and  later  to 
have  entered  the  studio  of  Costa  and  Francia  at  Bologna. 
His  earliest  works  show  the  influence  of  these  painters. 
He  became  one  of  the  greatest  Italian  masters  of  painting, 
and  his  best  pictures  are  as  much  sought  after  as  are  those 
of  Raphael  and  Titian. 

He  led  a  singularly  quiet  and  restricted  life,  wholly  sepa- 
rate from  all  competition  with  other  masters  of  his  time. 
Many  of  his  notable  religious  paintings  were  executed  in 
Parma,  whither  he  went  by  invitation.  Afterward  he  returned 
to  the  little  town  where  he  was  born,  and  died  there. 


110  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Though  the  style  of  Correggio  had  much  influence  upon 
the  art  of  northern  Italy,  yet  he  does  not  seem  to  have  had 
any  very  distinguished  scholars.  They  all,  striving  to  paint 
like  their  master,  without  possessing  his  genius,  fell  into  a 
disagreeable  mannerism. 

Every  important  European  gallery  has  examples  of  his  work. 

Characteristics.  —  Subjects    religious    and    mythological. 


CORREGGIO.     MARRIAGE  OF  ST.  CATHERINE.     LOUVRE. 

Composition  quiet  and  simple,  save  in  large  church  pictures, 
where  it  is  somewhat  conventional. 

Correggio  was  a  worshipper  of  physical  beauty,  particu- 
larly that  of  women  and  children,  and  no  one  can  study  his 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  Ill 

pictures  without  feeling  that,  whatever  the  subjects,  they 
were  painted,  first  of  all,  to  express  this  beauty. 

To  portray  charm,  not  character,  was  his  mission.  In 
this  he  is  more  closely  allied  to  the  Venetian  School,  as  seen 
in  Giorgione  and  Titian,  than  to  any  other. 

His  figures  always  express  joy  ;  they  are  in  motion,  or  just 
on  the  verge  of  it.  In  this  grace  of  motion  he  surpasses  all 
other  masters. 

His  chiaroscuro,  at  its  best,  rivals  that  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci.  His  flesh  shadows  are  so  transparent  that  one 
seems  to  look  through  them  and  see  the  very  texture  of 
the  flesh. 

His  color  vies  with  the  Venetian  in  beauty,  but  is  more 
Ferrarese  in  pure,  simple  brilliance  ;  he  was  very  fond  of  a 
certain  beautiful  blue,  which  marks  many  of  his  pictures. 

His  type  of  faces  recalls  that  of  Leonardo.  It  has  been 
said  that  only  two  artists  have  ever  painted  the  smile  of 
woman  - —  Leonardo  and  Correggio ;  but  the  difference  is 
great  between  the  two  smiles.  Leonardo's  is  full  of  sub- 
tility,  is  the  expression  of  something  deep  in  the  life  and 
character,  while  Correggio's  is  as  transparent  as  the  light ; 
it  is  simply  the  joy  of  existence.  He  was  no  deep  student 
of  human  nature. 

His  women's  hands  are  peculiarly  beautiful,  slender,  and 
restless.  His  children's  heads  have  usually  an  exaggerated 
forehead  and  an  abundance  of  curly  hair.  Their  faces 
express  archness,  sometimes  roguery. 

Most  important  works  : 

FRESCOES.     Convent  of  S.  Paolo,  Parma. 

FRESCOES.*  Cupolas  of  Duomo  and  S.  Giovanni,  Parma. 

"  Madonna  della  Scodella,"  "  II  Giorno."     Gallery,  Parma. 

"  Madonna  and  Child."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  La  Danae."     Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 

Madonna  ("  La  Zingarella  ").     Gallery,  Naples. 


112  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

"  Madonna  of  St.  Francis,"  "  Madonna  of  St.  Sebastian,"  "  La 
Notte,"  one  of  the  twelve  pictures  sometimes  called  "  World 
Pictures."  x  Dresden  Gallery.  All  the  light  in  the  last  picture 
proceeds  from  the  child.  It  bathes  with  radiance  the  face  of 
the  happy  mother,  who  bends  over  her  babe,  and  dazzles  the 
eyes  of  the  wondering  shepherds. 

The  celebrated  "  Reading  Magdalen,"  Dresden  Gallery,  so  long 
attributed  to  Correggio,  is  now,  by  best  authorities,  believed 
to  be  the  work  of  some  Flemish  painter. 

"  Jupiter  and  Antiope,"  "  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine."  Louvre, 
Paris. 

"  La  Viejrge  au  Panier,"  "  Ecce  Homo,"  "  Education  of  Cupid." 
National  Gallery,  London. 

Pannigiano  (Francesco  Mazzuoli,  1504-1540)  is  one  of 
the  most  noted  of  Correggio's  followers,  but  falls  far  behind 
his  master.  Only  Correggio  could  be  great  in  his  own 
peculiar  sphere  of  art. 

Parmigiano's  Madonnas  and  saints  possess  little  charm, 
though  his  color  is  clear  and  warm  and  his  drawing  good. 

His  figures  are  marked  by  very  long  limbs  and  necks. 

His  portraits  are  better  than  his  ideal  pictures. 

Representative  works : 

"  Moses  Breaking  the  Tables  of  the  Law."  Madonna  della  Stec- 
cata,  Parma. 

"  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine."     Gallery,  Parma. 

"Madonna  delle  collo  longo"  (with  the  long  neck).  Pitti  Gal- 
lery, Florence. 

"  Madonna  with  St.  Margaret."     Gallery,  Bologna. 

Altar-piece.     National  Gallery,  London. 

Portraits.  Museum,  Naples  ;  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence  ;  Gallery, 
Vienna  ;  and  Madrid  Gallery. 

1  See  p.  51. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

ITALIAN    PAINTING. 


LOMBARD   SCHOOL. 
EARLY  AND  HIGH  RENAISSANCE  PERIODS. 

Characteristics.  —  Early  School  influenced  by  Squarcione 
(Paduan  School),  later  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (Florentine 
School).  Subjects  religious ;  in  best  works  a  perfect  treat- 
ment of  light  and  shade  ;  color  important ;  a  peculiar  refine- 
ment of  sentiment  and  expression. 

EARLY  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  1400-1500. 

Vincenzo  Foppa  (  —  -  1 492),  born  in  Brescia,  and  afterward 
living  in  Milan,  is  the  first  name  of  importance.  It  is  prob- 
able that  he  studied  in  the  school  of  Squarcione. 

His  works  show  the  same  study  of  the  antique,  the  same 
taste  for  classic  architecture  and  gilt  stucco  ornament  that 
are  found  in  the  early  Paduan  School. 

They  are  also  marked  by  an  unusual  energy  of  expression, 
sometimes  carried  almost  to  the  grotesque,  and  good  outline 
drawing.  His  drawings  have  often  been  attributed  to  Man- 
tegna  (Paduan  School). 

Representative  works : 

FRESCO.    "  St.  Sebastian  "  and  Altar-piece.    Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 
"  Madonna  and  Child."     Municipal  Museum,  Milan. 
Altar-piece.    Savona  Cathedral. 

"  Adoration  of  the  Kings  "  (attributed  to  Bramantino).     National 
Gallery,  London. 

"3 


114  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Bramantino  (Bartolommeo  Suardi,  about  1450-1526?)  was 
so  called  from  his  study  under  Bramante,  the  architect  and 
painter  (uncle  of  Raphael). 

The  works  of  this  artist  are  very  unequal  in  merit ;  some 
almost  rival  those  of  Mantegna  (Paduan  School),  while 
others  are  of  little  value. 

Many  of  his  pictures  are  marked  by  a  peculiar  disposition 
of  light  entering  from  below.  His  heads  have  an  abundance 
of  wavy  hair  surmounted  by  fantastic  headdresses. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Madonna  Enthroned,"  "  St.  Martin  dividing  his  Cloak  with  a 
Beggar."  Brera  Gallery,  Milan.  In  this  gallery  are  also 
several  frescoes  attributed  to  Luini  which  were  probably 
painted  by  Bramantino. 

Altar-piece.     Ambrosian  Library,  Milan. 

Ambrogio Borgognone  (1445-1523)  was  a  pupil  of  Foppa, 
but  entirely  original  in  his  art.  He  has  been  called  the 
Fra  Angelica  of  this  school,  so  devout  are  his  works. 

They  bear  a  resemblance  to  those  of  Perugino  (Roman 
School).  His  Madonnas  are  marked  by  extreme  gentleness 
of  expression.  His  coloring  is  pale  and  delicate,  particu- 
larly in  his  early  works.  Later  it  is  more  rich  and  full. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Christ  bearing  the  Cross."     Academy,  Pavia. 

Altar-piece.     "  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine  of  Sienna."     National 

Gallery,  London. 

"  Enthroned  Madonna."     Berlin  Museum. 
Altar-piece.     S.  Spirito,  Bergamo. 

Giovanni  Antonio  Beltraffio  (1467-1516)  was  a  pupil  of 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  produced  some  works  that  have 
passed  under  that  artist's  name. 

His  paintings  possess  the  same  broad,  general  treatment, 
full  color,  and  strength  of  chiaroscuro  that  characterize  his 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  115 

master.     His  faces  are  of  the  same  type,  but  usually  of  a 
longer  oval,  and  his  treatment  of  the  flesh  tints  is  individual. 

Representative  works : 
FRESCO  (formerly  attributed  to  Leonardo  and  badly  damaged). 

Sant'  Onofrio,  Rome. 

Several  pictures  in  Poldi-Pezzoli  Gallery,  Milan. 
Madonna.     National  Gallery,  London. 
Madonna.     Gallery,  Bergamo. 

Marco  da  Oggiono  (1470-1530),  also  a  pupil  ot  Leonardo, 
is  of  comparatively  little  importance. 

His  name  is  connected  with  Leonardo's  "Last  Supper," 
of  which  he  made  several  good  copies ;  one  is  now  in  the 
Royal  Academy,  London ;  one  in  the  Brera  Gallery,  Milan ; 
and  one  in  the  Hermitage,  St.  Petersburg. 

Most  of  his  original  paintings  seem  to  belong  to  a  period 
prior  to  Leonardo,  so  hard  are  they  in  style,  and  so  cold 
and  inferior  in  color. 

Representative  works : 
"  Three  Archangels."     Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 
"  Salvator  Mundi "  (long  bore  the  name  of  Leonardo).     Borghese 

Gallery,  Rome. 
"  Holy  Family."     National  Gallery,  London. 

HIGH  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  1500-1600. 

Andrea  Solario  (i46o?-i52o?)  was  born  in  Milan  and 
belonged  to  a  family  of  architects  and  sculptors.  He  came 
very  close  to  the  manner  and  spirit  of  Leonardo  in  many 
of  his  pictures,  though  he  lived  at  one  time  in  Venice  and 
came  under  the  influence  of  that  school. 

The  modelling  of  his  figures,  especially  his  hands,  is 
remarkably  fine.  He  excelled  also  in  beauty  of  tone  and 
in  power  of  expression. 

Some  of  his  later  works  show  such  a  decided  Flemish 
character  that  it  is  thought  he  must  have  visited  Flanders. 


116 


THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


It  has  been  difficult  for  critics  to  decide  upon  the  author- 
ship of  several  pictures  now  believed  to  have  been  painted 
by  this  artist.  Formerly  they  have  been  distributed  among 
Leonardo,  Giovanni  Bellini,  and  Raphael. 

Representative  works: 

"  Virgin  and  Child  with  Saints."     Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 

"  Ecce  Homo,"  "  Flight  into  Egypt."  Poldi-Pezzoli  Gallery,  Milan. 


LUINI.     MARRIAGE  OF  ST.  CATHERINE.     POLDI-PEZZOLI  MUSEUM,  MILAN. 

Portrait.     "  Charles  d'Amboise?"  (long  attributed  to  Leonardo). 

"  Madonna  of  the  Green  Cushion."     Louvre,  Paris. 

"  Herodias."     Gallery,  Vienna. 

"  Christ  bearing  the  Cross."     Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 

Portraits  in  Brera  Gallery,  Milan,  and  National  Gallery,  London. 

Bernardino  Luini  (1475  ?-i 533),  born  at  Luino,  on  Lake 
Maggiore,  was  early  a  pupil  of  Borgonone,  but  in  his  later 
life  he  established  himself  at  Milan  and  was  very  power- 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  117 

fully  influenced  by  Leonardo,  the  spirit  and  style  of  whose 
work  he  followed  most  closely.  Through  him  we  can  really 
study  this  great  master  who  has  left  so  few  paintings  to 
the  world. 

Luini's  early  pictures  are  often  confounded  with  those 
of  Bramantino,  his  later  with  those  of  Leonardo.  They 
take  very  high  rank  by  reason  of  their  composition  and 
technique,  but  more  because  of  their  grace,  purity,  and 
spiritual  expression. 

He  never  fell  into  exaggeration,  as  did  so  many  of  Leo- 
nardo's followers.  His  women's  and  children's  faces  are 
most  thoroughly  charming  because  of  the  sweet,  inward  smile, 
the  serenity,  that  marks  them. 

He  painted  in  fresco,  tempera,  and  oil.  His  wall  paint- 
ings rank  him  among  the  first  fresco  painters,  with  so  much 
freedom  are  they  executed. 

His  best  oil  pictures  are  finished  with  great  elaboration, 
are  finely  colored,  and  treated  with  forcible  light  and  shade. 

Most  important  works  : 

FRESCOES.     S.  Maurizio,  Milan. 

Fragments  of  Frescoes.     Brera  Gallery,  Milan.     The  most  noted 

of  these  is  "  Body  of  St.  Catherine  borne  to  the  Tomb  by 

flying  Angels." 

FRESCOES.     Church  in  Saronno. 

"  Madonna  of  the  Rose-Trellis."     Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 
"  Crucifixion."     Church,  Lugano. 
Altar-piece.     Cathedral,  Como. 

"  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine."     Poldi-Pezzoli  Gallery,  Milan. 
"  Daughter  of  Herodias."     Louvre,  Paris. 

"  Christ  disputing  with  the  Doctors."     National  Gallery,  London. 
"  Modesty  and  Vanity."     Sciarra  Gallery,  Rome. 
"  Daughter  of  Herodias."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  John  Baptist  playing  with  Lamb."     Ambrosian  Library,  Milan. 

The  last  four  paintings  were  long  catalogued  as  works 
by  Leonardo. 


118  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Gaudenzio  Ferrari  (1484-1546)  was  a  contemporary  of 
Luini,  and  though  inferior  to  that  artist  was,  at  his  best, 
a  painter  of  much  power  and  charm.  His  work  is  very 
unequal,  his  early  pictures  being  much  more  tender  and 
refined  than  his  later,  which  are  spoiled  by  the  use  of  very 
violent  colors,  especially  a  crude  red.  He  was  influenced 
by  Leonardo,  and  later  by  Raphael.  He  also  followed 
Bramantino  in  his  fondness  for  giving  his  figures  fantastic 
headdresses  and  much  hair,  and  for  lighting  his  picture 
from  below. 

Representative  works : 

Altar-piece.     St.  Gaudenzio.     Varallo  in  Piedmont. 

FRESCOES.     Sacra  Monte,  Varallo.    Among  these  the  most  noted 

is  the  "  Crucifixion,"  in  which  are  eighteen  strong,  graceful, 

mourning  angels,  with  fine  expression. 
Pictures  in  tempera.     Cathedral,  Como. 
"  Martyrdom  of  St.  Catherine."     Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 
"  St.  Paul."     Louvre,  Paris. 

Other  names  of  some  note  in  this  school  are  Cesare  da 
Sesto  (i48o?-i524?),  influenced  at  first  by  Leonardo,  after- 
ward by  Raphael;  Andrea  da  Salerno  (1480?-! 530),  who 
painted  in  Naples;  Gianpietrino  (painted  1493-1540),  who 
imitated  well  the  dreamy  sentiment  of  Leonardo  (whose 
pupil  he  was),  painted  chiefly  half-length  figures,  and  loved 
to  clothe  them  in  deep  orange,  almost  scarlet  draperies ;  and 
Ambrogio  de  Predis  (painted  1482-1514),  who  is  especially 
noted  for  lovely  and  sympathetic  portraits  in  profile  (see 
Morelli's  "  Italian  Masters  "). 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

ITALIAN    PAINTING. 


BOLOGNESE  SCHOOL. —  SCHOOL  OF  THE  NATURALISTS. 

EARLY  AND  HIGH  RENAISSANCE  PERIODS,  AND  THE 
DECADENCE. 

Characteristics.  —  Earliest  work  unimportant ;  latter  half 
of  fifteenth  century,  influenced  by  Ferrarese  School  through 
Lorenzo  Costa  ;  latter  half  of  sixteenth  century,  merged  into 
the  Eclectic-Bolognese  School  founded  by  the  Carracci,  whose 
aim  was  to  select  and  collect  into  one  all  the  excellencies  of 
other  schools. 

EARLY  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  1400-1500. 

Francia  (Francesco  Raibolini,  1450-1518),  of  Bologna,  is 
the  first  name  of  importance.  In  early  life  he  was  a  gold- 
smith, but  when  Lorenzo  Costa,  of  Ferrara  (see  p.  106), 
came  to  Bologna  and  opened  a  studio  in  the  same  house  in 
which  Francia  was  working,  he  abandoned  his  goldsmith's 
art'  for  that  of  the  painter,  and  received  from  Costa  his 
first  instruction.  He  probably  was  also  influenced  by  Ercole 
Robert!  de'  Grandi  (Ferrarese  School),  who  at  that  time  was 
painting  in  Bologna. 

There  is  a  tradition  told  by  Vasari  that  Francia  died  from 
the  shock  produced  by  seeing  Raphael's  "  St.  Cecilia,"  as  it 
caused  him  to  realize  how  far  below  that  consummate  artist 
he  was.  Raphael  had  consigned  to  Francia  this  picture, 

119 


120 


THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


painted  for  the  church  of  San  Giovanni  in  Monte  at  Bologna, 
requesting  him  to  repair  any  damage  that  might  have  befallen 
it,  and  to  superintend  the  placing  of  it  in  the  church.  The 
story  is  probably  a  fiction.  Raphael  is  reported  to  have  said 
that  Francia's  Madonnas  were  the  most  devoutly  beautiful 
of  any  he  knew,  and  certainly  there  is  no  such  inequality  of 
merit  as  the  tradition  implies. 


FRANCIA.     MADONNA  AND  CHILD.     BORGHBSE  GALLERY,  ROME. 

Characteristics.  —  Pictures  are  marked  by  deep  religious 
feeling,  expressed  by  much  tenderness,  and  are  affected  by 
the  Peruginesque  style  of  Costa.  Indeed,  this  is  so  apparent 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  121 

that  some  writers  have  urged  that  he  must  have  been  directly 
influenced  by  Perugino  or  Raphael. 

His  figures  possess  much  quietude.  In  early  paintings 
they  are  often  finished  with  an  exactness  of  detail,  a  metallic 
surface,  and  a  clear  outline  that  betrays  the  goldsmith's  hand. 
Though  graceful,  they  suggest  the  appearance  of  people 
posing  for  their  portraits. 

No  painter  ever  gave  more  sweetness  to  Madonna  heads 
than  did  Francia.  His  complexions  are  dainty,  pearly  tinted, 
and  a  delicate  carnation  tint  is  given  to  the  eyelids ;  the 
latter  is  a  characteristic  peculiar  to  him. 

He  excelled  in  portraiture,  especially  of  women.  His 
frescoes  are  particularly  charming. 

Most  important  works  : 

Two  of  a  series  of  Frescoes  representing  scenes  in  the  Life  of 
St.  Cecilia.  Oratory  of  St.  Cecilia,  Bologna.  (Francia's  are 
the  first  two  at  right  and  left  of  altar.) 

Altar-pieces  and  other  pictures.     Gallery,  Bologna. 

"  Annunciation."     Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 

"  St.  Stephen,"  "  Madonna."     Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 

"  Madonna  and  Child  in  Thicket  of  Roses."  Old  Pinacothek, 
Munich. 

"  Baptism."     Gallery,  Dresden. 

"  Madonna  and  Child  with  St.  Joseph."     Berlin  Museum. 

"  Pieta."     National  Gallery,  London. 

HIGH  RENAISSANCE  PERIOD,  1500-1600. 

Timoteo  Viti  (1467-1523)  is  the  most  noted  of  Francia's 
pupils.  He  was  born  either  in  Ferrara  or  Urbino,  and  went 
to  Bologna  to  study  the  goldsmith's  art,  but  forsook  that  to 
study  painting  under  Francia,  with  whom  he  wrought  for 
several  years,  then  went  to  Urbino,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life. 

The    remarkable    resemblance    between    Viti's    and    the 


122  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

earliest  of  Raphael's  work  has  led  for  a  long  time  to  the 
supposition  that  the  young  boy  taught  the  middle-aged  man, 
but  it  is  now  generally  conceded  by  art  critics  that  Viti 
probably  was  Raphael's  first  instructor  after  the  death  of 
the  latter's  father  (see  p.  74).  As  this  opinion  obtains,  his 
work  is  rapidly  growing  in  importance. 
Representative  works  : 

Altar-pieces.     Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 
Altar-pieces.     Gallery  and  Cathedral,  Urbino. 
"  Magdalen."     Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 
"  St.  Margaret."     Morelli  Collection,  Milan. 

ECLECTIC-BOLOGNESE.       PERIOD    OF    DECADENCE,    l6oO-. 

The  Carracci,  Ludovico  (1555-1619),  Agostino  (1558-1601), 
Annibale  (1560-1609),  had  for  their  aim  the  revival  of  the 
decaying  art  of  Italy,  and  this  they  sought  to  accomplish  by 
the  imitation  of  the  great  masters  of  the  High  Renaissance. 
They  opened  an  academy  at  Bologna,  which  became  very 
celebrated,  and  endeavored  to  work  the  desired  reform. 
Their  influence  was  considerable,  and  from  this  school 
sprang  several  artists  of  note.  Annibale  is  the  greatest 
painter  of  the  three  ;  his  small  pictures,  Madonnas  and  Holy 
Families,  are  particularly  pleasing.  Ludovico  and  Agostino 
painted  large  compositions.  Landscape  backgrounds  of  the 
Carracci  are  very  decorative.  Pupils  of  the  Carracci  form 
what  is  called  the  "  Eclectic-Bolognese  School." 

Representative  works  : 

Pictures  by  all  three.     Gallery,  Bologna. 
FRESCOES  (Annibale).     Farnese  Palace,  Rome. 
Madonnas  and  Holy  Families  (Annibale).     Uffizi  Gallery,  Flor- 
ence ;  Berlin  Museum  ;  Louvre,  Paris. 

Domenichino  (Domenico  Zampieri,  1581-1641),  born  at 
Bologna,  is  the  greatest  pupil  of  the  Carracci.  He  painted 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  123 

religious,  historical,  and  mythological  subjects.  His  pictures 
are  noted  for  harmonious  coloring,  effective  light  and  shade, 
great  technical  skill,  and  a  charming  simplicity  of  style.  He 
had  not  the  gift  of  originality,  but  often  made  use  of  the 
compositions  of  other  artists.  One  peculiarity  of  his  works 
is  that  we  find  the  greatest  interest  and  beauty  in  the  subor- 
dinate figures  introduced,  rather  than  in  the  principal  group. 
He  painted  excellent  landscapes,  decorative  in  character  like 
those  of  Annibale  Carracci.  He  is  said  to  have  suffered 
much  because  of  the  jealousy  of  his  rivals,  and  died  in 
Naples  under  the  suspicion  of  having  been  poisoned. 
Most  important  works  : 

"  Communion  of  St.  Jerome."  Vatican  Gallery,  Rome  (one  of  the 
twelve  pictures  sometimes  called  "  World  Pictures  "  J).  The 
saint,  an  emaciated  old  man  about  to  die,  is  brought  into 
the  Church  at  Bethlehem  to  receive  the  last  sacrament. 
There  is  a  very  fine  grouping  of  attendants.  A  copy  in 
mosaics  is  in  St.  Peter's,  Rome. 

"  Four  Evangelists."     Cupola  of  S.  Andrea  della  Valle,  Rome. 

FRESCOES  (Life  of  St.  Cecilia).     S.  Luigi,  Rome. 

"  Diana  and  Nymphs,"  "  Cumaean  Sibyl."  Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 

"Guardian  Angel."     Gallery,  Naples. 

"  St.  John."     Hermitage,  St.  Petersburg. 

Representative  Landscapes  are  in  Villa  Ludovisi  and  Doria  Gallery, 
Rome  ;  Louvre,  Paris  ;  National  Gallery,  London. 

Guide  Reni  (1575-1642),  born  near  Bologna,  excelled  in 
painting  old  men,  women,  and  children.  At  first,  he  seems 
to  have  been  imbued  with  a  spirit  of  realism,  and  produced 
works  of  some  power  and  worth  to  the  art  world  ;  but  later 
he  became  fond  of  ideal  forms,  and  a  general  expression  of 
sameness  crept  into  his  work,  which  fast  degenerated.  At 
this  time  were  painted  his  numerous  Madonnas,  Magdalens, 
Cleopatras,  and  Sibyls,  which  are  to  be  found  in  every 

1  See  page  51. 


124 


THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


European  gallery.     He  painted  in  three  manners  :  the  first, 
powerful  in  light  and  shade ;  the  second,  less  strong  but  marked 
by  rich,  warm  coloring  ;  the  third,  pale  and  cold  in  color. 
Most  important  works : 

"  Aurora  preceding  the  Chariot  of  the  Sun,  surrounded  by  the 
Hours."  Ceiling  of  Garden-house  of  the  Rospigliosi  Palace, 
Rome.  This  is  one  of  the  finest  decorative  pictures  in  the 
world,  and  is  one  of  the  twelve  pictures  sometimes  called 
"  World  Pictures."  l 

"  Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter."     Vatican  Gallery,  Rome. 


GUIDO  RENI.    AURORA.    ROSPIGLIOSI  PALACE,  ROME. 

"Archangel  Michael  slaying  the  Dragon."  Church  of  the  Ca- 
puccini,  Rome.  A  copy  of  this  picture,  in  mosaics,  is  in  St. 
Peter's,  Rome. 

Portrait  of  Beatrice  Cenci2  (authorship  now  seriously  doubted). 
Barberini  Gallery,  Rome.  This  picture  is  by  some  numbered 
among  the  so-called  "  World  Pictures  "  in  place  of  Rembrandt's 
"Night-Guard,"  but  does  not  seem  of  sufficient  importance 
in  the  world  of  art  to  merit  even  such  an  arbitrary  distinction. 

1  Seep.  51. 

2  (Ba-a-tre-cha  Chen'-che)  a  Roman  lady  of  noble  birth,  famous  for 
her  beauty  and  tragic  fate.     Her  father  was  an  infamous  person,  who 
treated  his  family  with  such  cruelty  that  several  of  them  conspired  and 
caused  his  assassination.     She  was  executed  for  this  crime  in  the  Castle 
of  St.  Angelo,  Rome,  in  1 599. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  125 

"  Madonna  del  Pieta,"  "  Massacre  of  Innocents."     Gallery,  Bo- 
logna. 

"  Ddjanire  and  Centaur  Nessus."     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Crucifixion."     Berlin  Museum. 

Francesco  Albani  (1578-1660)  was  a  fellow-pupil  of  Domeni- 
chino  and  Guido  Reni  in  the  school  of  the  Carracci.  He 
owes  his  reputation  to  his  numerous  small  easel  pictures, 
which  generally  have  fanciful  and  mythological  subjects. 
His  figures  are  represented  as  being  in  the  open  air,  and 
the  scenery  is  so  well  painted  that  the  artist  attained  quite 
a  reputation  among  landscape  painters. 

It  is  said  that  his  wife  and  children  were  models  for  his 
numerous  Venuses,  Dianas,  Cupids,  and  Nymphs.  While 
the  sentimental  and  picturesque  characterize  the  pictures  of 
Guido,  the  fanciful,  the  romantic,  and  the  elegant  character- 
ize those  of  Albani.  He  painted  a  few  religious  pictures, 
and  these  are  large  in  size. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Four  Seasons."     Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 
"  Landing  of  Venus."     Chigi  Palace,  Rome. 
"  Toilet  of  Venus."     Louvre,  Paris. 
Pictures  in  Gallery,  Dresden. 

Guercino  (Giovanni  Francesco  Barbieri,  1592-1666),  though 
not  a  direct  pupil  of  the  Carracci,  was  greatly  influenced  by 
their  school.  His  pictures  show  animation  and  a  brilliant 
color  which  is  sometimes  too  heavy  in  the  flesh  shadows. 

His  earlier  works  are  strongest.  In  these  his  style,  like 
that  of  Guido  Reni,  is  realistic  and  marked  by  broad  masses 
of  shadow  and  small,  clear  lights.  His  later  style  is  much 
softer  and  weaker,  and  his  pictures  of  this  period  are  insipid. 

Most  important  works  : 

"  St  Peter  raising  Tabitha."     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Hagar  and  Ishmael."     Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 


126  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

"  Madonna."     Louvre,  Paris. 

"  Body  of  St.  Petronella  raised  from  the  Tomb  to  be  shown  to  her 

betrothed    Husband.    Flaccus."     Capitoline   Gallery,  Rome. 

A  copy  in  mosaics  is  in  St.  Peter's,  Rome. 
"  Dido's  Last  Moments."     Spada  Palace,  Rome. 
"  Incredulity  of  St.  Thomas."     Vatican  Gallery,  Rome. 
"  Samian  Sibyl.''     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

Cristofano  Allori  (1577-1621),  sometimes  called  Bronzino, 
was  a  good  artist  of  his  time.  He  possessed  greater  origi- 
nality than  many  of  his  contemporaries,  and  his  pictures  are 
of  a  higher  order.  His  drawing  and  color  are  often  power- 
ful. He  painted  portraits  well. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Judith  with  Head  of  Holofernes."     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  Jupiter    and    Mercury,"    "  Susanna    at    the    Bath."      Gallery, 

Dresden. 
"  Isabella  of  Arragon."     Louvre,  Paris. 

Sassoferrato  (Giovanni  Battista  Salvi,  1605-1685)  was 
much  influenced  by  Domenichino  and,  in  spite  of  a  certain 
sentimentality,  produced  much  that  is  somewhat  pleasing. 
He  was,  however,  naturally  an  imitator,  and  was  at  his  best 
only  when  copying  the  styles  of  other  artists. 

His  constant  subject  is  the  Madonna  and  Child.  His 
pictures  are  finished  most  carefully. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Madonna  del  Rosario."     S.  Sabina,  Rome. 

"  Holy  Family."     Gallery,  Naples. 

Madonnas.      Vatican    Gallery,    St.    Luke's   Academy,    Borghese 

Gallery,  Rome. 

"  Mater  Dolorosa."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Child    Jesus    asleep,"    "  Assumption    of   the    Virgin,"    "  Holy 

Virgin."     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Madonna  in  Prayer,"  "  Madonna  and  Child."     National  Gallery, 

London. 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  127 

Carlo  Dolci  (1616-1686)  is  chiefly  distinguished  for  the 
charming  feeling  and  exquisite  finish  of  his  pictures.  These 
are  generally  mere  heads  or  single  figures.  His  female 
figures  are  finer  than  his  male,  as  his  style  is  decidedly 
effeminate.  There  is  often  an  affected  sentimentality  that 
is  not  pleasing. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Magdalen,"  "  Angel  of  the  Annunciation,"  "  Madonna  del  Dito  " 

(of  the  thumb).     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Madonna,"  "  St.  Andrew."     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Madonna  and  Child."     Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 
"  St.  Cecilia."     Gallery,  Dresden. 
Madonna.     National  Gallery,  London. 

Other  names  of  some  note  are  Giovanni  Lanfraneo  (1581- 
1647),  wri°  endeavored  to  imitate  Correggio  ;  Baroccio  of 
Urbino  (1528-1612),  whose  work  is  of  considerable  strength, 
chiefly  founded  on  study  of  Correggio;  Cigoli  (1559-1613), 
noted  for  sentiment  and  fine  color ;  Bartholomeo  Schedone 

of  Modena  ( J^is),  whose  early  works  imitate  Correggio, 

later  ones,  the  Naturalists ;  and  Peter  of  Cortona  (Pietro  Beret- 
tino  (1596-1669),  an  artist  with  certain  power  of  invention, 
whose  effects  are  very  brilliant  but  superficial. 

SCHOOL   OF   THE   NATURALISTS. 
PERIOD  OF  THE  DECADENCE,  1600-. 

Characteristics.  —  This  school  aimed  at  a  literal  imitation 
of  nature  as  opposed  to  the  ideal  view  that  is  founded  on 
selection,  and  so  in  principle  was  utterly  at  variance  with 
the  Eclectic-Bolognese,  although  a  mutual  influence  was 
exerted.  The  chief  subjects  of  representation  are  strong, 
violent,  passionate  scenes.  These  are  treated  with  such 
small  lights  and  broad,  dark  shadows  that  the  name  of 


128  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

"  Tenebrosi  "  (Darklings)  has  been  given  to  the  followers  of 
the  school.  It  is  one  of  the  least  important  of  the  Italian 
schools. 

Caravaggio  (Michael  Angelo  Amerighi,  1569-1609),  born  in 
Caravaggio,  was  a  wild,  passionate  man,  who  manifested 
much  of  his  own  nature  in  the  subjects  he  chose  and  in  the 
manner  of  his  painting.  At  first  he  painted  portraits  in 
Milan  ;  afterward  he  went  to  Venice,  where  he  studied  the 
works  of  Giorgione.  Still,  true  to  himself,  he  could  paint 
nothing  refined  or  noble. 

When  he  chose,  as  he  often  did,  events  of  a  sacred  char- 
acter for  subjects,  he  always  placed  the  scenes  on  a  low 
plane  of  life.  He  gave  to  the  world  savage,  even  brutal 
figures,  abounding  in  vitality  and  force,  and  true  to  life. 

His  most  successful  pictures  are  those  in  which  he  por- 
trayed the  banditti  and  vagabonds  of  the  times  in  which 
he  lived,  and  are  especially  characterized  by  strong,  bold 
coloring,  sharp,  glaring  contrasts  of  light  and  shade,  and  a 
high,  small  light.  Most  of  his  works  are  very  large. 

He  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  many  of  his  contem- 
poraries. 

Most  important  works : 

Wall  Paintings.     S.  Luigi  de'  Frances?,  Rome. 

"  Beheading  of  St.  John  Baptist."     Cathedral,  Malta. 

"Entombment  of  Christ."     (His  best  sacred  picture.)    Vatican 

Gallery,  Rome. 

"  Holy  Family."     Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 
"  Cheating  Card-players."     Sciarra  Gallery,  Rome ;  and  Gallery, 

Dresden. 

"  Soothsayer."     Capitoline  Gallery,  Rome. 
"  Earthly  Love."     Berlin  Museum. 

Lo  Spagnoletto  (Giuseppe  Ribera,  1588-1656),  a  native  of 
Spain,  is  perhaps  the  ablest  of  the  Naturalist  School.  He 
came  to  Naples  and  was  one  of  three  painters  of  this  school, 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  129 

who  banded  themselves  together,  with  the  object  of  exclud- 
ing from  that  city  the  works  of  all  masters  in  other  parts  of 
Italy.  They  resolved  to  expel  or  poison  every  painter  of 
talent  who  should  come  to  Naples  to  practise  his  art  there. 
Domenichino  (see  p.  122)  is  reported  to  have  been  one  of 
their  victims.  Annibale  Carracci  and  Guido  Reni  were 
forced  by  them  to  leave  Naples. 

Spagnoletto  formed  his  style  chiefly  after  Caravaggio.  His 
forms  are  generally  correct  and  are  very  strongly  drawn  ; 
his  pictures  are  rich  in  color. 

His  early  paintings,  following  the  Spanish  School,  are  sim- 
ple, though  displaying  power  ;  but  in  later  ones  he  presents 
scenes  full  of  passion  and  terror,  even  to  the  portrayal  of 
hideous  executions  and  martyrdoms,  to  which  his  wonder- 
fully strong  chiaroscuro  gives  an  almost  demoniac  character. 

He  painted  many  sacred  scenes,  also  single  figures  of 
apostles,  prophets,  and  hermits,  all  angular,  bony,  wild- 
looking  figures.  He  also  represented  mythological  scenes. 

Representative  works : 

"  Descent  from   the    Cross "  and  "  Last   Supper."     S.  Martino, 

Naples. 

"  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds."     Gallery,  Naples. 
"  Martyrdom  of  St.  Bartholomew."     Berlin  Museum. 
"  Dead  Christ."     National  Gallery,  London. 
"  Silenus."     Gallery,  Naples. 
"  St.   Mary  of   Egypt."      Gallery,   Dresden.      This   picture  has 

recently  received    the  name  "Mary  Magdalene  in  her  Cell 

waited  upon  by  Angels."     It  is  the  most  beautiful  of  this 

artist's  work. 
'<  St.  Paul  Hermit."     Gallery,  Dresden. 

Salvator  Rosa  (1615-1673)  is  noted  as  a  genre,  portrait 
and  landscape  painter.  In  early  life  he  painted  in  Naples 
with  Lo  Spagnoletto  ;  afterwards  he  went  to  Rome,  where 
he  spent  the  most  of  his  life.  He  is  especially  remarkable 


130 


THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


for  his  bold  landscape  painting,  but  in  all  his  work  there  is  an 
emotional  conception  with  a  masterly  vigor  of  execution,  that 
distinguishes  him  from  other  artists.  He  was  a  notable  por- 
trait painter.  Fuseli  has  described  thus  finely  his  landscapes : 
"  He  delighted  in  ideas  of  desolation,  solitude,  and  dan- 


SALVATOR  ROSA.    HEADS  OF  BRIGANDS.    ACADEMY  OF  ST.  LUKE,  ROME. 

ger  ;  impenetrable  forests,  rocky  or  storm-lashed  shores ;  in 
lonely  dells  leading  to  dens  and  caverns  of  banditti ;  Alpine 
ridges,  trees  blasted  by  lightning  or  sapped  by  time,  or 
stretching  their  extravagant  arms  athwart  a  murky  sky  ; 
lowering  or  thundering  clouds,  and  suns  shorn  of  their 
beams.  His  figures  are  wandering  shepherds,  forlorn  trav- 
ellers, wrecked  mariners,  banditti  lurking  for  their  prey,  or 
dividing  their  spoils." 


ITALIAN  PAINTING.  131 

Representative  works  : 

Landscape  and  Portrait.     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

Landscapes,  marine  views,  "Conspiracy  of  Catiline,"  "  Tempta- 
tion of  St.  Anthony."  Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 

Battle-pieces,  marine  views,  landscapes.  Corsini,  Colonna,  Doria, 
and  Chigi  Palaces,  Rome. 

Battle-piece.     Louvre,  Paris. 

Other  names  of  some  note  are  Stanzioni  (1585-1656),  a 
few  of  whose  works  show  nobler  feeling  than  those  of  his 
contemporaries  ;  Lissandrino  (1661  -  — )  a  close  imitator  of 
Salvator  Rosa  ;  Michael  Angelo  Cerquozzi  (1602-1660),  distin- 
guished for  battle  scenes  and  genre  pictures  from  low  life  ; 
and  Luca  Giordano  (1632-1705),  a  painter  gifted  with  extraor- 
dinary talent,  who  sacrificed  the  excellence  of  his  work  to 
its  rapid  and  bold  execution. 

Italian  painting  in  the  nineteenth  century  is  of  compara- 
tively little  importance,  and  has  been  influenced  chiefly  by 
that  of  France  and  of  Germany. 

Among  the  names  most  worthy  of  note  are  Domenico 
Morelli,  painter  of  religious  pictures,  and  a  follower  of  the 
modern  German  prae-Raphaelite  movement,  embodied  in 
Overbeck  ;  Giuseppe  de  Nittis  and  Francesco  Michetti,  who  are 
under  the  influence  of  the  French  painting  of  to-day ; 
Giuseppe  Boldini  (French  style),  painter  of  portraits  and 
genre. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

FRENCH    PAINTING. 


^SIXTEENTH,  SEVENTEENTH,  AND  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURIES. 

Characteristics.  —  The  earliest  French  painting  shows 
Italian  influence.  It  was  used  on  tapestries  and  garments, 
on  glass.,  furniture,  and  walls,  and  in  illuminations.  From 
the  ninth  to  the  thirteenth  century  Byzantine  characteristics 
prevailed  ;  after  this  artists  began  to  endeavor  to  follow 
nature,  still  nothing  worthy  of  the  name  of  a  revival  of  art 
appeared  until  the  fifteenth  century. 

Each  century  following  this  seems  to  have  been  marked  by 
a  distinctive  advance.  The  sixteenth  century  fostered  what 
may  be  called  two  schools  of  painting,  one  of  which  followed 
Flemish  methods,  while  the  other  was  strongly  influenced 
by  the  work  of  Italian  artists  imported  by  Francis  I.  The 
latter  outranked  the  former  and  was  most  influential  in 
shaping  French  art. 

The  seventeenth  century  witnessed  a  striking  development. 
In  it  the  French  Academy  of  Painting  was  founded,  and 
many  important  art  collections  were  begun.  Italian  influence 
predominated. 

In  the  eighteenth  century,  under  the  influence  of  the 
court  of  Louis  XV,  French  art  became  more  original,  and 
for  the  first  time  assumed  a  distinctive  character.  The  sen- 
timent of  Italian  painting  gave  way  to  a  brilliant  rendering 
of  life  —  French\&o..  The  decorative  quality  appeared. 

132 


FRENCH  PAINTING.  133 

In  the  nineteenth  century  giants  have  been  born  to  the 
French  SchooE  First,  classic  art  (imitation  of  Greek)  pre- 
vailed, then  romantic,1  and,  lastly,  nature  became  its  mistress 
and  has  brought  it  to  the  magnificent  position  it  holds  to-day 
—  that  of  first  importance  in  the  world  of  painting. 

Rene  of  Anjou  (1408-1480),  one  of  the  first  French  painters 
whose  attested  works  are  in  existence  to-day,  was  titular 
King  of  Naples.  His  painting  shows  a  strong  Italian  influ- 
ence, which  was  gained  while  he  was  living  in  Italy,  seeking 
to  substantiate  his  claims  to  this  throne.  He  founded  an 
art  school  in  Provence,  where  he  held  court  as  Count  of 
Provence  and  Anjou.  His  works  show  a  tender  treatment 
of  sacred  subjects  that  reminds  one  of  Fra  Angelico.  Their 
execution  is  most  careful  and  betrays  an  acquaintance  with 
Flemish  methods. 

These  may  be  seen  at  Villeneuve  near  Avignon,  at  the  Cluny 
Museum  in  Paris,  and  at  Aix. 

The  most  important  picture  of  his  school  is  now  in  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Aix.  It  is  an  altar-piece  in  three  parts  (a  tryptich);  the 
central  picture  represents  Moses  at  the  Burning  Bush ;  Rend 
kneels  at  the  left  and  his  wife  at  the  right ;  above  are  many 
charming  cherubs. 

Jean  Fouquet  (1415-1480),  Jean  Pereal  (-  —1528?), 
battle  painter,  and  Jean  Bourdichon  (1457-1521),  portrait 
painter,  were  all  court  painters.  Jean  Fouquet  is  the  most 
important  of  the  three.  His  Italian  travels  gave  his  pic- 
tures Italian  motives,  sentiment,  and  beauty  and  grace  of 
composition.  Their  execution  is  Flemish.  They  are  painted 
in  oils  after  the  Van  Eyck  method. 

Most  important  works : 

"  Saviour  of  the  World."     National  Gallery,  London. 
"Virgin  and  Child."     Museum,  Antwerp. 

1See  "Technical  Terms  Used  in  Painting,"  p.  259. 


134  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

The  Clouets  (there  were  four  of  them)  are  important 
names  in  early  French  painting.  They  were  of  Flemish 
origin.  The  most  noted  are  Jean  (1485  ? -1541  ?)  and 
Fran9ois  (1510-1572),  whpjKer£_court  painters  to  Francis  IT 
and  who  have  left  very  interesting  portraits,  which  are 
marked  by  excessive  finish  and  a  careful  imitation  of  nature, 
after  the  Flemish  method.  Those  painted  by  Francois  have 
been  often  attributed  to  Holbein  (German  painter). 

Most  important  works : 

Two  portraits  of  Francis  I  of  France  by  Jean  Clouet  are  in  exist- 
ence ;  one  in  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence  ;  the  other  at  Versailles  ; 
also  a  portrait  of  Henry  II  of  France  in  Pitti  Gallery, 
Florence. 

Many  of  Francois  Clouet's  portraits  are  in  Hampton  Court  Pal- 
ace, England.  Sixteen  portraits  in  the  Louvre,  Paris,  are 
attributed  to  the  "  school  of  Clouet." 

Jean  Cousin  (1501-1589?)  is  the  earliest  historical  painter 
of  this  school.  His  work  shows  Italian  influence  exclu- 
sively. He  possessed  a  thorough  knowledge  of  anatomy, 
and  his  portrayal  of  muscular  strength  has  caused  him  to  be 
called  the  French  Michael  Angela. 

Representative  works: 

"  The  Last  Judgment."     Louvre,  Paris. 

"  Eva,  Prima  Pandora."     Jean  Cousin's  House,  Sens. 

"  Descent  from  the  Cross."     Mayence. 

Martin  Fre"minet  (1567-1619),  pupil  of  Jean  Cousin,  studied 
for  several  years  in  Italy.  Though  not  a  pupil  of  Caravag- 
gio,  his  dark  shadows  have  caused  him  to  be  ranked  among 
that  artist's  followers.  He  was  an  admirer  of  Michael 
Angelo,  and  caught  some  of  the  grand  style  of  that  great 
master.  His  most  important  work  is  the  decoration  of  the 
ceiling  of  the  chapel  at  Fontainebleau. 


FRENCH  PAINTING.  135 

Simon  Vouet  (1590-1649)  was  influenced  by  Venetian 
painting,  especially  that  of  Paul  Veronese.  But  his  color- 
ing, compared  with  that  of  the  Venetians,  is  crude  and 
inharmonious.  He  established  a  school  of  art  in  Paris 
which  gained  much  note,  and  which  proved  to  be  the  origin 
of  the  French  Academy. 

He  is  greater  by  reason  of  his  eminent  pupils  than  by 
his  own  painting. 

Representative  works : 

"  Presentation  in  the  Temple,"  "  Reunion  of  Artists."     Louvre, 

Paris. 
"  Travels  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,"  "  St.  Peter  Delivered  by  the 

Angel."     Notre  Dame,  Paris. 

Nicholas  Poussin  (1593-1665)  is  distinguished  as  histor- 
ical, mythological,  and  landscape  painter,  and  occupies,  a 
.very  high  place  in  the  history  of  French  painting  by  reason 
jjf  his  influence,  though  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life 
in  Rome.  He  was  a  worthy  contemporary  of  the  best  that 
Italian  art  in  this  century  produced,  and  is  often  ranked 
with  Italian  artists  of  the  Decadence. 

He  was  especially  fond  of  mythological  subjects,  to  which 
he  always  gave  an  able  rendering.     His  interpretations  of 
the  Italian  landscape  are  among  the  best  in  the  world  of 
art^    His  work  possesses  a  heroic  quality  that  is  especially 
fitted  to  represent  the  grandeur  of   the  Italian  mountains 
_and  the  luxuriant  vegetation  of  the  country.     He  gave  con>\ 
paratively  little  attention  to  atmospheric  effect  or  color,  but  £ 
depicted  superb  masses  of  foliage,  massive  groups  of  antique  V 
architecture,  and  twilight  skies  heavy  with  clouds. 

His  figures  are  well  drawn  and  modelled,  but  err  in  being 
too  sculpturesque. 

The  surface  of  many  of  his  pictures  has  suffered  badly 
by  the  action  of  light  and  air. 


136  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Most  important  works: 

"  Theseus."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  Manna  in  Desert,"  "  Eleazar  and  Rebecca,"  "  Et  in  Arcadia  ego" 

(I,  too,  lived  in  Arcadia),  "  The  Seasons."     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Venus  surprised  by  a  Satyr,"  "  Bacchanalian  Dance."     National 

Gallery,  London. 
"Seven  Sacraments."     Belvoir  Castle,  England. 

GasEar^Poussin  (Caspar  Dughet,  1613-1675),  landscape 
painter,  wasaTBrbther-in-law  of  Nicholas  Poussin,  and  took 
the  name  of  his  famous  relative,  to  whom  his  style  of  work 
and  success  were  doubtless  due  in  a  great  measure.  He 
painted  much  more  in  detail  than  Nicholas  Poussin?  and 
gave  more  attention  to  atmospheric  effects.  He  was  in  the 
habit  of  painting  on  very  dark  grounds,  which  gives  a 
gloomy,  melancholy  effect  to  his  pictures.  They  may  be 
seen  in  almost  all  European  galleries. 

^Claude_Lorrauiej^Claude  Gillee,  1600-1682),  born  in  Lor- 
raine, has  won  a  lasting  reputation  as  landscape  painter. 
His  chief  excellence  is  the  management  of  aerial  perspective 
and  light.  Mr.  Ruskin  says  that  he  "  effected  a  revolution 
in  art  by  simply  setting  the  sun  in  the  heavens.  Till  his 
time  no  one  had  thought  of  painting  the  sun  except  con- 
ventionally. He  made  the  sun  his  subject,  painted  the 
effects  of  misty  shadows,  etc.,  ...  as  no  one  had  ever  done 
before,  and,  in  some  respects,  as  no  one  has  ever  done  in 
oil  color  since." 

He  followed  the  conventionality  of  classic  landscape  like 
Nicholas  Poussin,  refining  upon  the  study  of  absolute  nature. 

His  work  was  a  constant  incentive  to  the  great  English 
landscapist  Turner,  one  of  whose  last  requests  was  that  one 
of  his  own  works  might  be  hung  beside  one  of  Claude 
Lorraine's  in  the  National  Gallery,  London. 
Lorraine's  work  may  be  found  in  all  the  principal  art  galleries  of 

Europe. 


FRENCH  PAINTING.  137 

Philip  de  Champaigne  (1602-1674)  was  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  French  Royal  Academy,  and  afterward 
became  its  director.  In  his  works  are  seen  a  rich  trans- 
parence of  color  and  a  charming  feeling  for  nature,  both  of 
which  are  due  to  his  early  education  in  Flemish  art.  His 
portraits  are  marked  by  the  expression  of  deep  feeling  and 
by  a  rendering  of  character  that  place  him  among  the  first 
portrait  painters  of  his  time.  The  persons  who  make  up 
his  religious  pictures  are  usually  portraits  after  the  Flemish 
manner. 

Representative  works  : 

Portraits  of  Richelieu.     National  Gallery,  London,  and  Louvre, 

Paris. 
Portraits  of  Mansard  and  Perrault.     "  Last  Supper  "  and  "  Les 

Religieuses."     Louvre,  Paris. 

Following  Philip  de  Champaigne,  the  most  noted  portrait 
painters  of  his  century  are  Pierre  Mignard  (1610-1695), 
many  of  whose  works  are  in  the  Louvre  ;  Nicholas  de 
Largilliere  (1656-1746),  also  historical  painter  ;  Hyacinthe 
Rigaud  (1659-1743);  and  Francois  de  Troy  (1645-1730). 

Eustache  Le  Sueur  (1617-1655),  taught  by  Vouet  and 
Nicholas  Poussin,  has  been  called  the  French  Raphael 
because  his  paintings  express  a  grace,  simplicity,  and  sweet- 
ness that  are  like  the  work  of  that  great  master.  He  how- 
ever possessed  none  of  Raphael's  power  of  invention  and 
strength  of  imagination.  His  subjects  are  religious ;  he 
was  especially  familiar  with  the  life  and  character  of  monks, 
having  lived  for  a  time  in  the  monastery  Chartreuse  in  Paris. 

Most  important  works  : 

"Scenes  in  the  Life  of  St.  Bruno."  Twenty-two  pictures  painted 
in  "  The  Chartreuse,"  now  in  the  Louvre,  Paris,  where  are 
about  fifty  pictures  painted  by  Le  Sueur,  among  which  "  St. 
Paul  preaching  at  Ephesus"  is  accounted  his  masterpiece. 

Mythological  scenes  decorating  the  Hotel  Lambert  de  Thorigny. 


138  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Charles  Le  Brim  (1619-1690)  is  noted  as  historical  painter. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Vouet,  also  of  Nicholas  Poussin,  whom 
he  followed  to  Rome.  Returning  to  Paris,  he  was  chosen 
first  director  of  the  French  Academy,  and  carried  out  the 
desires  of  Louis  XIV  in  the  decorations  at  Versailles,  which 
are  a  grand  apotheosis  of  the  victories  of  that  king. 

His  work  is  theatrical  and  mannered ;  is  disagreeably 
monotonous,  and  is  stronger  in  composition  than  in  light 
and  shade,  drawing  or  technique. 

Most  important  works  : 

Decorative  paintings  at  Versailles. 

Series    of    pictures,    "  The     History    of    Alexander."     Louvre, 
Paris. 

Sebastian  Bourdon  (1616-1671)  and  Jean  Jouvenet  (1644- 
1717)  are  among  the  most  important  of  Le  Brun's  followers, 
since  they  were  strong  enough  to  deviate  somewhat  from 
his  mannered  style.  Both  artists  may  be  studied  in  the 
Louvre. 

Antoine  Watteau  (1684-1721)  was  the  most  influential 
painter  in  that  change  of  both  spirit  and  method  which 
entered  into  French  art  of  the  eighteenth jQenlury,  and  may 
be  called  the  first  distinctively  French  painter.  His  pictures 
record  the  manners  of  gay  society  of  his  time,  and  thus  are 
simply  works  of  the  higher  genre.  Their  subjects  are 
mostly  fetes  or  frolics,  peopled  with  beautiful  women  and 
their  lovers,  all  dressed  in  bewitching  costumes  fashioned 
after  the  styles  of  the  times. 

He  studied  color  from  Rubens'  brilliant  series  of  scenes 
in  the  life  of  Marie  de  Medicis,  then  in  the  Luxembourg,  and 
these  gay  rosy  hues  are  admirable  in  his  holiday  scenes. 
His  technique  is  in  advance  of  anything  that  had  pre- 
ceded it. 

His  pictures  have  been  largely  reproduced  by  engraving. 


FRENCH  PAINTING.  139 

Representative  works: 

"  The  Embarkation  of  Cythera,"  called  his  masterpiece,  is  in 
the  Louvre,  where  are  several  other  characteristic  pictures. 
Several  are  in  the  t Hermitage,  St.  Petersburg  ;  Gallery, 
Dresden  ;  and  private  collections  in  London. 

"  Lovers  Surprised,"  "  Concert  Champetre  "  are  in  Buckingham 
Palace,  London. 

Nicholas  Lancret  (1690-1743),  Jean  Baptiste  Pater  (1691;- 
1736)  were ^Vatteau's  best  pupils  and  most  successful  fol- 
lowers. They  nevej^uite  equalled  their  master. 

Carle  van  Loo  (1705-1765)  and  Francois  Boucher  (1703- 
1770)  showjthe  Injurious  influence  of  Watteau's  style, of 
painting  when  _pnictised  by  mediocre  painters. 

Devoid  of  purity  of  taste  in  conception  and  truth  of 
rendering,  full  of  affectations,  their  art  grew  out  of  and 
ministered  to  the  debased  taste  of  the  century. 


Their  works  may  be  seen  in  all  important  French  art  galleries. 

Francois  Lemoine  (1688-1737)  *s  noted  for  his  decorative, 
historical  work.  During  a  visit  to  Italy  he  became  fasci- 
nated by  the  gorgeous  decorative  paintings  there  seen,  and 
on  his  return  to  Paris  painted,  among  other  works,  an 
"  Apotheosis  of  Hercules "  for  the  ceiling  of  the  Salon 
d'Hercule,  Versailles.  This  contains  one  hundred  and  forty- 
two  figures,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  most  magnificent 
decorative  paintings  in  France. 

Jean  Baptiste  Chardin  (1699-1779)  was  a  genre  painter 
who  chose  domestic  scenes  for  subjects.  These  he  treated 
with  rare  simplicity  and  truth,  and  gave  them  great  beauty 
by  means  of  a  skilful  handling  of  light  and  exquisitely  pure 
tones  of  color. 

He  is  well  represented  in  the  Louvre,  where,  among  several 
others,  is  "  Le  BdneMiciteY'  his  most  famous  picture. 


140  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Jean  Honore"  Fragonard  (1732-1806),  first  a  pupil  of  Char- 
din,,  afterward  of  Boucher,  combined  the  work  of  the^wo. 
C  He  chose  the  frivolous,  meaningless  subjects  of   Boucher 
T  and    represented    them    with    the    charming    realism    of 
yChardin. 

He  was  clever  in  color  and  technique,  and  some  of  his 
pictures  are  full  of  a  suggestiveness  that  causes  them  to 
possess  a  certain  fascination. 

Representative  works  are  in  the  Louvre,  Paris. 

Jfian-Baptiste  Greuee  (1725-1805)  began  his  art  life  as  a 
portrait  painter;  afterward  he  devoted  himself  to  a  senti- 
mental genre,  in  which  pictures  the  heads  (especially  of 
age  and  youth)  are  extremely  charming.  He  has  been 
called  the  "  artist  of  the  people  "  because  his  subjects  always 
appeal  to  ^common  humanity.  Many  of  his  pictures  contain 
only  the  figure  of  a  young  girl ;  into  these  he  usually  intro- 
duced some  cause  for  pensive  feeling  or  regret.  Many  are 
simply  heads.  His  technique  is  weak.  Most  of  his  works 
have  been  engraved. 

They  are  highly  prized  by  collectors  and  are  generally 
popular. 

Representative  works  : 

"  The  Village  Bride,"  "  Broken  Pitcher,"  "  The  Father's  Curse." 

Louvre,  Paris. 
Several  pictures.     National  Gallery,  London. 

Claude  Joseph  Vernet  (1714-1789)  is  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished of  the  French  landscape  painters  of  his  time, 
when  originality  of  genius  was  a  higher  claim  to  admiration 
than  was  representation  of  nature. 

His  execution  is  labored,  his  drawing  careful,  his  color 
very  monotonous,  and  his  groups  of  figures  prim  and  con- 
ventional. 


FRENCH  PAINTING.  141 

His  storm  scenes  are  among  his  most  successful  works. 
He  received  a  commission  from  Louis  XV  to  paint  views  of 
the  seaports  of  France. 

Fifteen  of  these  seaport  pictures  are  now  in  the  Louvre,  Paris. 

Representative  works  are  also  in  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich;  Berlin 

Museum  ;  Galle.y,  Dresden  ;  and  National  Gallery,  London. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

FRENCH    PAINTING. 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

Joseph  Marie  Vien  (1716-1809)  began  the  revolt  against 
eighteenth-century  art,  and  inaugurated  that  reform  which 
culminated  in  his  pupil  David. 

His  preference  was  for  the  serious  and  the  dignified,  and 
the  classic  art  that  he  found  in  Rome  appealed  far  more  to 
him  than  did  the  frivolous  brilliance  of  Watteau  and  his 
followers. 

He  opened  a  school  in  Paris  in  1781  which  became  noted 
for  its  illustrious  students. 

His  work  may  be  best  seen  in  the  Louvre,  Paris,  and  at  Versailles. 

V 

Jacques  Louis  David  (1748-1825),  pupil  of  Vien,  afterward 
studied  the  antique  marbles  in  Rome,  and  became  most 
enthusiastic  in  this  line  of  art.  He  wholly  abandoned  the 
study  of  nature,  and  when  he  returned  to  Paris  devoted  him- 
self exclusively  to  the  practice  and  teaching  of  classic  art, 
and  exerted  a  very  great  influence.  The  military  spirit  of 
his"  time  gave  occasion  for  the  heroic  style  of  picture  that 
he  loved  best  to  paint.  He  was  first  painter  to  the  court 
of  Louis  XVI,  and  one  of  Napoleon's  dearest  friends.  Some 
of  his  finest  works  commemorate  scenes  connected  with 
Napoleon. 

His  work  is  most  severe  ;  many  of  his  figures  look  more 
like  marble  statues  than  like  living,  breathing  flesh.  Indeed, 

142 


FRENCH  PAINTING. 


143 


DAVID.    NAPOLEON  CROSSING  THE  ALPS.    VERSAILLES. 

he  was  accustomed  to  paint  first  the  nude  figure,  modelling 
it  as  carefully  as  one  would  a  statue,  before  painting  gar- 
ments upon  it. 

He  cared  very  little  for  color. 

In  his  latest  pictures  there  is  slightly  more  sentiment  and 
a  softer  expression.  He  painted  many  portraits. 


144  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

After  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  he  was  exiled  from  France, 
but  left  there  many  able  pupils  who  carried  out  his  principles 
of  work. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Napoleon  Crossing  the  Alps,"  "  Coronation  of  Napoleon  and 
Josephine,"  "  Rape  of  the  Sabine  Women,"  "  Leonidas  at 
Thermopylae,"  portrait  of  Madame  Re'camier,  and  other 
pictures.  Louvre. 

Francois  Andre"  Vincent  (1746-1816)  and  Jean  Baptiste 
Regnault  (1754-1829)  are  important  among  David's  many 
pupils  and  followers.  Regnault  shared  with  David  in  the 
glorification  of  Napoleon,  and  also  painted  many  purely 
classic  pictures. 

His  best  works  may  be  studied  in  the  Louvre  and  at  Versailles. 

Peter  Paul  Prudhon  (1758-1823),  while  following  many  of 
the  principles  of  David's  art,  infused  much  nature  into  it. 
He  chose  scriptural  and  mythological  rather  than  heroic 
subjects,  and  gave  much  living  grace  to  his  figures.  His 
light  and  shade  are  soft ;  the  outlines  of  his  figures  much 
less  severe  than  those  of  David,  and  his  draperies  are 
charmingly  rendered. 

Representative  works : 

"  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,"  "  Justice  and  Vengeance  Pursuing 
Crime,"  and  many  others.  Louvre. 

Many  exquisite  drawings  by  Prudhon  are  in  existence. 
The  expression  "  grace  of  Prudhon  "  grew  out  of  these 
rather  than  from  his  paintings. 

Antoine  Jean  Gros  (1771-1835)  is  one  of  the  most  noted 
of  David's  pupils  ;  noted,  not  because  he  followed  his  master, 
but  because  he  began  to  originate,  and  thus  produced  works 
that  are  individual  and  contain  the  germs  of  growth.  His 
purely  classic  works  are  inferior  to  those  of  David ;  his 


FRENCH  PAINTING.  145 

historical  paintings  are  superior,  being  full  of  real  life,  and 
yet  marked  by  the  dignity  and  heroic  element  of  classic 
art. 

His  light,  shade,  and  color  are  excellent. 

He  was  for  several  years  professor  in  the  £cole  des 
Beaux-arts,  Paris. 

Representative  works  : 
"  Pest  of  Joppa,"  "  Battlefield  of  Eylau,"  and  others.     Louvre. 

Jean  Dominique  Auguste  Ingres  (1780-1867)  holds  a  middle 
place  between  the  art  of  hismaster  David  and  the  romantic 
school  that  completely  displaced  it. 

After  leaving  the  studio  of  David  he  spent  many  years 
in  Rome,  and  became  an  ardent  student  of  Raphael's  works, 
^rrthe  endeavor  to  combine  the  excellencies  of  both  methods, 
he  acquired  the  practice~o£  subordinating  all  othfiF  q"a-1itips 
of  a  picture  to  its  forms,  so  that  we  find  his  figures  possessed 
of  an  almost  Greek  beauty  of  line  and  action,  and  also  a 
natural  grace,  that  compel  admiration. 

He  painted  many  pictures  containing  a  single  figure,  and 
these  show  his  style  of  work  to  the  best  advantage. 

During  his  lifetime  his  works  ranked  in  importance  with 
those  of  Delacroix  and  other  noted  artists  who  were  fling- 
ing aside  all  study  of  the  antique  and  devoting  themselves 
to  the  representation  of  nature  and  its  actualities. 

Many  important  works  by  Ingres  are  in  the  Louvre. 

Emile  Jean  Horace  Vernet  (1789-1863)  is  especially  noted 
as  a  battle  painter,  though  he  produced  many  good  portraits, 
scriptural  scenes,  and  genre  pictures.  He  stood  somewhat 
apart  from  the  style  of  painting  established  by  David,  being 
influenced  strongly  by  those  artists  who  were  breaking  away 
from  the  old  traditions. 

He  was  an  observer,  and  possessed  a  great  facility  for 
representation  ;  was  far  from  being  a  simple  military  chroni- 


146  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

cler,  as  were  some  of  his  contemporaries.  He  served  for 
a  time  as  a  soldier  and  wrought  experience  into  his  pic- 
tures. 

He  commonly  painted  alia  prima,  as  the  Italians  express 
it ;  that  is,  without  any  retouching. 

His  work  is  seen  to  great  advantage  at  Versailles,  in  the  Hall  of 
Constantina. 

Several  of  his  pictures  are  in  the  Louvre,  where  is  the  popular 
one,  "  Raphael  Encountering  Michael  Angelo  on  the  Steps 
of  the  Vatican."  Into  this  he  introduced,  as  a  Roman 
peasant,  his  only  daughter,  who  afterward  became  the  wife 
of  the  artist  Delaroche. 

AryJ5cheffei^(i797-i858),  of  German_nationalitv.  is  essen- 
tially the  rjpet  jjainter  of  _France.  The  chief  quality  of  all 
his  pictures  is  sentiment.  In  treatment  of  the  figure  he 
was  influenced  by  Ingres. 

His  works  have  a  uniform  melancholy  tendency  that  is 
very  striking. 

His  most  noted  pictures,  "  Francesca  da  Rimini,"  "  Dante  and 
Beatrice,"  "  St.  Augustine  and  his  Mother,  St.  Monica," 
"  Christus  Consolator,"  "  Temptation  of  Christ,"  and  his 
many  illustrations  of  Goethe's  Faust  are  well  known  through 
engravings  and  photographs. 
Several  of  his  paintings  are  in  the  Louvre,  Paris. 

Paul  (Hippolyte)  Delaroche  (1797-1856)  was  first  a  land- 
scape painter,  afterwards  represented  familiar  scenes  of 
history.  He  also  painted  religious  pictures. 

He  chose  qualities  from  both  schools,  classic  and  romantic, 
which  were  striving  against  each  other  in  his  time. 

His  subjects  are  dramatic  and  his  color  powerful.  His 
design  is  somewhat  conventional  and  his  drawing  most 
careful  in  detail. 

His  pictures  are  very  popular,  and  have  often  been 
reproduced. 


FRENCH  PAINTING. 


147 


Representative  works : 

"  Death  of  Elizabeth,"  "  Children  of  Edward  IV."     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Strafford  going  to  the  Scaffold."     Collection  of  Duke  of  Suther- 
land, England. 
"  Hemicycle  of  the  Fine  Arts."     Ecole  des  Beaux-arts,  Paris. 


DELAROCHE.    CHILDREN  OF  EDWARD  IV.    LOUVRK. 

Other  names  of  this  time  worthy  of  notice  are  Madame 
Vigee-Lebrun  (1755-1842),  a  very  successful  portrait  painter, 
and  Jean  Victor  Bertin  (1775-1842),  landscape  painter. 

impulse  toward  a  complete  turning  from  classic  to  romantic 
art.  Classic  art,  founded  on  the  antique,  is  cold  and  formal ; 
it  does  not  awaken  any  powerful  emotion.  The  new  school. 
called  Romantic^  places  all  other  q"a1iHp«t  »» — a — picture 
below  its  power  of  causing  deep  feeling.  It  is  dramatic; 
it  portrays  tragedies. 


146  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

GeVicault  died  young,  before  the  revolt  was  complete,  but 
his  painting  of  a  single  picture,  the  "  Wreck  of  the  Medusa," 
a  French  frigate  that  had  just  been  lost  off  the  coast  of 
Africa,  gives  him  the  right  to  an  important  name  among  its 
leadership. 

The  "  Wreck  of  the  Medusa  "  is  an  immense  canvas,  and  repre- 
sents in  the  most  dramatic  manner,  full  of  powerful  movement, 
the  wretched  survivors  at  the  very  moment  when,  after  having 
heen-onjthe-jralt  exposed  to  the  sufferings  of  shipwreck  for  thir- 
teen days,  they  first  catch  sight  of  another  vessel. 

IT  is  now  in  the  Louvre,  where  are  also  a  large  number  of 
other  pictures  by  Ge'ricault. 

NEW  MOVEMENTS  IN  FRENCH  PAINTING  DURING  THE  PRESENT 
CENTURY. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  present  century  the  war  between 
classic  and  romantic  art  waged  strongly,  until  finally  a  new 
era  in  painting  was  ushered  in  by  the  famous  "  men  of  1830," 
as  they  have  been  called. 

Most  important  among  these  are  Delacroix,  Decamps, 
Fromentin,  Corot,  Rousseau,  Dupre,  Diaz,  Daubigny, 
Troyon,  Millet. 

Ferdinand  Victor  Eugene  Delacroix  (1799-1863)  is  the  great- 
^esTname  amoTlgTKeleadersor  the  romantic  school  of  paint- 
ing. He  was  powerfully  impressed  by  the  ideas  and  the 
stir  of  public  events  of  his  time,  and  used  his  art  to  move 
men's  feelings.  He  has  been  called  the  painter  of  the  soul 
of  his  age.  He  was  influenced  by  Gericault,  of  whom  he 
was  a  companion  in  study.  After  the  death  of  Gericault, 
Delacroix  carried  on  with  great  ardor  the  reform  begun  by 
him. 

He  met  with  scorn  and  censure  from  the  adherents  to  the 
classic  style,  but  was  followed  with  a  sort  of  passion  by  his 
contemporaries,  who  sympathized  with  him. 


FRENCH  PAINTING.  149 

His  works  show  a  most  vivid  power  of  imagination  and 
strength  of  expression  ;  they  are  indeed  living  dramas. 

His  color  is  exceedingly  rich  and  harmonious  ;  his  design 
and  drawing  sometimes  weak  ;  his  forms  are  always  subordi- 
nate to  their  color. 

He  labored  intensely.  It  was  his  custom  to  study  his 
subject  until,  as  he  said,  he  had  learned  it  by  heart,  using 
models  for  this  study,  but  totally  discarding  them  when  he 
painted  his  picture,  for  he  felt  that  the  actual  copying  of  any 
model  would  inevitably  lower  his  work. 

Representative  works : 

"  Barque  of  Dante,"  "  Massacre  of  Scio,"  "  Women  of  Algiers," 

"  Jewish  Wedding  in  Morocco."     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Crusaders  entering  Constantinople."     Versailles. 

Alexandra  Gabriel  Decamps  (1803-1860)  was  the  leader  of 
the  new  school  in  Orientalism.  At  first  he  was  a  painter  of 
French  genre,  but  after  travelling  in  the  east  found  most 
of  his  subjects  among  that  civilization. 

He  loved  light,  color,  and  warmth,  and  his  pictures  are 
saturated  with  these  qualities.  There  is  a  surpassing  faith- 
fulness to  detail  in  them,  which,  if  thoroughly  studied,  forms 
a  source  of  education  regarding  the  people  and  countries 
pictured. 

Important  works  may  be  found  in  the  Louvre,  in  the  Metro- 
politan Museum,  New  York,  and  in  many  private  art  collections. 

Eugene  Fromentin  (1820-1876),  painter  and  writer,  is  the 
chief  interpreter  of  Arab  life.  Horses  and  horsemen  were 
his  delight,  and  he  set  them  in  a  glory  of  oriental  freedom, 
space,  and  color. 

Representative  works : 

"  Falcon  Hunt  in  Algiers,"  "  Arab  Encampment,"  "  Arab  Women 
on  the  Nile,"  "  The  Courier,"  and  others.     Louvre. 


150 


THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


Other  noted  Orientalists  are  Prosper  Marilhat  (181 1-1847), 
especially  noted  for  Egyptian  scenes ;  Charles  Theodore  Fre"re 

(1815 );  Jean  Leon  Gerome  (see  p.  154);  Gustave  Boulanger 

(1824-1 888);  Henri  Regnault  (1843-1 871);  andj.  J.  Benjamin- 
Constant  (1845-1902). 

Jean  Baptiste  Camille  Corot  (1796-1875)  is  the  greatest 
name  among  landscape  painters  at  the  time  of  the  transition 


COROT.    THE  WILLOWS. 

from  classic  to  romantic  painting.  He  is  also  the  first  name 
in  the  famous  Fontainebleau-Barbizon  School,  a  school  that 
was  devoted  primarily  to  the  study  of  light,  color,  and 
impression.  It  was  so  named  because  its  artists  clustered 
about  Barbizon  and  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau. 

In  his  work  details  are  suppressed  ;  he  endeavored  to 
interpret  the  impression  received  from  viewing  a  landscape, 
and  his  strongest  excellence  is  the  suggestiveness  with 
which  he  accomplished  this. 


FRENCH  PAINTING.  151 

His  management  of  light  and  atmosphere  is  inimitable, 
especially  when  he  represented  early  morning  and  twilight. 

His  color  is  cool  and  silvery  —  pale  greens  and  grays  and 
browns. 

Examples  of  Corot's  and  of  the  following  artists'  works  may 
be  found  in  the  Louvre,  the  Luxembourg,1  and  other  French  gal- 
leries, and  in  the  most  important  museums  and  private  galleries  of 
this  country. 

"^Pierre  Etienne  Theodore  Rousseau  (1812-1867),  who 
belongs  to  the  Fontainebleau-Barbizon  School  of  landscape 
painters,  has  sometimes  been  called  the  "father  of  modern 
landscape  painting."  He  excelled  Corot  in  his  conceptions 
of  the  grandeur  of  nature;  his  color  is  richer  and  finer  ;  his 
works  are  more  real,  but  lack  that  peculiar  suggestiveness 
that  is  the  charm  of  Corot. 

He  suffered  particularly  from  the  hostility  of  the  leaders 
of  the  classic  school  during  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  and 
has  been  called  the  "  proto-martyr  of  modern  landscape." 
In  the  later  years  of  his  life  he  was  immensely  popular. 
X  Jules  Duprti  (18 1 2-1889)  was  artist-companion  of  Rousseau, 
and  regarded  his  subject  from  a  point  of  view  between  that  of 
Corot  and  of  Rousseau.  His  own  feeling  is  peculiarly  appar- 
ent in  his  pictures,  which  are  impressive  by  reason  of  this. 

Sometimes  a  violence  of  nature  is  seen  in  bent  and 
twisted  trees. 

He  also  painted  marine  pieces  and  genre. 
r'Narcisso  Virgilio_Diaz  de  la  Pena  (1808-1876),  called  simply 
Diaz,  of  the  Fontainebleau-Barbizon  School,  excelled  in  light 
and  atmosphere.     His  pictures  are  all  joyous,  full  of  sun-/ 
shine  and  happy  people.     His  drawing  is  sometimes  defec- 
tive.    His  works  are  especial  favorites  in  this  country. 

1  Works  of  living  French  artists  purchased  by  the  government  are 
placed  in  the  gallery  of  the  Luxembourg.  Ten  years  after  the  death  of 
the  artist  his  work  may  be  transferred  to  the  Louvre. 


152  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Charles  Fra^ois  Daubigny  (1817-1878)  followed  Corot  in 
his  breadth  of  treatment.  He  is  eminently  the  painter 
of  river  scenes,  whose  banks  are  covered  with  a  wealth  of 
vegetation  and  numbers  of  noble  trees.  He  excelled  in  the 
art  of  etching. 

Constant  Troyon  (1810-1865)  painted  the  fields  about 
him;  with  forests  as  backgrounds,  and  cattle  at  labor  or  at 
rest. 

His  work  possesses  the  qualities  of  the  Fontainebleau- 
Barbizon  School  of  landscape  painting.  He  also  studied 
the  Dutch  School,  and  many  of  his  pictures  of  animals  arer 
worthy  successors  of  Paul  Potter's  (Dutch  School). 

Other  important  French  animal  painters  are  Charlgs_Emile 
Jacque  (1813-1890),  who  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  paintings 
and  etchings  of  sheep  ;  Emile  van  jMarcke  (1827-1890),  a 
follower  of  Troyon;  Rosa  Bonheur  (1822-1899),  the  greatest 
woman  painter  of  animals,  especially  of  horses;  Auguste 
Bonheur  (1824-1884);  and  Jules  Jacques  Veyrassat  (1825 ) , 


painter  of  work  horses. 

Jean  Francois  Millet_£i8i4-i875)  was  leader  in  what  maybe 
called  _the  rustic  genre,.. an  important  art  development.  _Ln_ 
landscapes  full  of  natural  beauty  and  poetry  of  feeling  he 
pictured  the  hard-working  peasantry  of  France  —  wood- 
cutters, water  carriers,  stone  breakers,  charcoal  burners, 
toilers  in  the  fields,  etc. ;  and  pictured  them  with_a_jdepth  of 
feeling,  an  earnestness  hitherto  unknown ;  with  a  sympathy 
which  was  born  of  his  own  peasant  life  and  nature. 

Like  Rousseau,  he  suffered  much  at  the  hands  of  the 
adherents  of  classic  or  academic  art,  ami  was  long  refused 
admittance  _to_the  Salon_exhibitions.  Gradually,  however, 
the  worth  of  his  work  became  understood. 

He  had  a  fine  feeling  for  line  and  form  ;  and  a  thorough 
appreciation  of  chiaroscuro,  which,  in  his  hands,  expresses 
thought  and  feeling. 


FRENCH  PAINTING. 


153 


His  works  are  tinged  with  a  certain  melancholy. 
Representative  works  : 

"  The  Sower,"  « The  Gleaners,"  "  Shepherdess  with  Sheep," 
"  Sheepfold  by  Night,"  "  Water  Carrier,"  "  Woodcutter," 
"  The  Angelus,"  and  many  others  found  in  the  Louvre  and 


MILLET.    THE  GLEANERS.    LOUVRE. 

other  French  galleries  ;  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York  ;  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston  ;  Art  Institute,  Chicago, 
and  private  collections. 

_Gustave  Courbet/iSiQ-iSyS)  scorned  both  the  classic  and 
the  romantic  schools,  taking  nature  only  as  a  mistress.  His 
subjects  are  landscape,  marine  views,  figures,  and  animals  ; 
but  his  most  important  pictures  are  his  landscape  genre, 
especially  those  in  which  he  represented  the  toiling  peasantry 
in  the  midst  of  most  charming  landscapes.  His  technique 
is  very  strong. 


154  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

His  pictures  are  to  be  found  in  all  French  and  American  art 
galleries  and  in  many  private  collections. 

Other  important  artists  who  are  painting  the  French  peas- 
antry are  Jutea  Addlphe  Breton  (1827-1906),  Alphonse  Legros 

(1837 ),  L&m  Augustin  L'hermitte  (1844—  — ),lind  Henry 

Lerolle,  in  his  later  work. 

Jean  Leon  Ge'rome  (1824-1904)  has  been  a  very  versatile 
painter.  His  first  training  was  classic  and  his  first  subjects 
are  mythological.  Then  he  chose  historical  subjects,  ren- 
dered in  the  classic  style  ;  then  oriental  scenes,  in  which  his 
work  is  far  more  realistic,  inclining  to  the  romantic;  and 
finally  he  is  a  painter  of  the  higher  genre  and  a  leader 
in  what  is  sometimes  styled  the  "  New-Greek "  School. 
The  practice  of  this  school  is  to  treat  the  commonest 
incident  with  a  grace  of  line  and  a  poetry  of  sentiment 
that  raise  it  to  the  classic.  It  shows  a  fondness  for  the 
nude. 

His  work  is  brilliant  and  impressive  from  its  strength, 
grace,  and  truth,  rather  than  from  the  expression  of  any 
depth  of  feeling. 

His  most  important  pictures  have  been  engraved,  and  are  famil- 
iar. Some  of  the  best  known  are :  "  The  Christian  Martyrs  in 
the  Arena,"  "  The  Death  of  Caesar,"  "  Cleopatra  before  Caesar," 
"Phryne  before  the  Areopagus,"  and  "Pollice  Verso"  (The  Thumb 
Reversed). 

Among  followers  of  the  "  New-Greek  "  School  are  Jean 

Louis  Hamon  (1821-1874),  Henri  Pierre  Picou  (1822 ), 

and  Ernest  Jean  Aubert  (1824 ). 

ganJLQuis^Meissonier  (1815-1891),  the  "prince  of  genre 
painters,"  was  once,  perhaps,  the  most  noted  of  the  French 
artists  of  his  time.  He  was  a  follower  of  the  romantic 
school  in  sentiment,  and  a  realist  in  execution.  Many  of 
his  subjects  are  historical ;  many  belong  to  what  may  be 
called  the  semi-aristocracy. 


FRENCH  PAINTING. 


155 


MEISSONIBR.     1814. 

A  chief  element  in  his  work  is  its  miniature-like  quality, 
but  it  never  loses  in  power  because  of  this  ;  for  he  con- 
stantly made  large  sketches  in  order  to  retain  force  of 
treatment.  He  painted  a  few  large  pictures  of  scenes 
connected  with  the  life  of  Napoleon. 


156  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

His  drawing  is  excellent;  his  treatment  of  costumes  admi- 
rable ;  his  color  fine,  and  his  technique  without  fault. 
His  works  have  been  largely  reproduced. 

Some  most  noted  pictures  are  :  "  1814,"  "  Napoleon  at  Sol- 
ferino,"  "  Reading  Military  Orders,"  "  The  Man  at  the-Window," 
"  The  Etcher,"  "  Amateurs  of  Painting,"  "  Chess  Players." 

Other  noted  names  among  modern  French  artists  are  : 
Thomas  Couture  (1815-1879),  who  borrowed  from  both  clas- 
sic^and  romantic  schools  ;  Alexandra  Cabanel  (1823-1889) 
anflWilliam Adolphp TRniigng™>flii ( 1825-1305),  semi-classicists, 
who  have  exerted  much  influence~rjy  teaching ;  Paul  Baudry 
(1828-1886),  follower  of  old  Roman  masters  ;  ^douard 


PetaiUe,(i848 )  and  Alphonse  de  Neuville  (1836^1885), 

painters  of  war  incidents;  L&m  J.  F.  Bonnat  (1833—  — ), 
Carolus-Duran.  f  18^7  —  — ),  and  J.  P.  Laurens  (1838—  — ), 
portrait  and  figure  painters;  and  Puvis  de  Chavannes.fi 824- 
1898),  decorative  painter.  Gustav  Pore  (1833-1883)  was  a 
most  imaginative,  fantastic  painter,  more  remarkable  for  the 
great  number  of  his  works  than  for  their  artistic  qualities. 

SCHOOL  OF  IMPRESSIONISTS. 

This  is  the  latest  school,  or  rather  movement  in  painting, 
in  France.  Its  leader  was  Ejouard  Manet  (1833-1883). 
That  which  he  advocated  and  tried  to  accomplish  in  his 
work  is  the  rendering  of  the  exact  vision  of  a  moment  — 
the  vision  of  movement,  of  life,  of  light  ;  hence  the  name. 

Jules  Bastien-Lepage  (1848-1884),  whose  celebrated  pic- 
ture, "Joan  d'Arc,"  is  so  widely  known,  was  the  greatest 
follower  of  Manet.  Others  are  Ernest  1*162(1843-1898)  and 
Louis  Butin  (1838-1883),  painters  of  scenes  by  the  sea; 
Alfred  Philippe  Roll  and  Jean  Be"raud,  painters  of  street  scenes ; 
Besnard,  historical  painter,  and  Pissaro,  painter  of  peasants. 


FRENCH  PAINTING.  157 

The  so-called  "  Landscape  Impressionists  "  are  endeavor- 
ing to  reach  the  true  pitch  of  nature's  coloring.  Claude  Monet 
is  their  leader,  who,  in  trying  to  paint  light,  has  abjured  the 
old,  dark  shadow  of  black  or  dark  brown,  and  substituted 
for  it  the  violet  or  purple  color.  To  represent  surfaces  in 
light,  he  employs  the  simple  prismatic  colors  laid  side  by 
side,  expecting  the  eye  to  blend  them,  instead  of  mixing 
the  colors  after  the  old  method.  Camille  Pissaro  follows  the 
methods  of  Monet.  Other  followers  of  this  new  movement, 
yet  in  its  infancy,  and  without  doubt  to  be  modified  until  it 
shall  be  of  real  value,  are  to  be  found  to-day  among  artists 
of  almost  all  countries. 


1 

SPANISH    PAINTING. 

SPAIN  has  almost  no  remains  of  painting  that  was  executed 
before  the  fifteenth  century. 

Characteristics.  —  From  the  first  the  influence  of  Italian 
masters  is  seen,  also  a  trace  of  Flemish  style.  The  art  is 
original  only  as  it  portrays  the  physical  characteristics  of 
the  Spanish  people,  and  is  impressed  by  the_melancholy^ 
almost  savage  domination  ^f  the  superstitions  of  church 
and  inquisition. 

The  work  of  the  different  centuries  is  very  uniform.  The 
subjects  are  chiefly  religious  anpVpojrtraits.  The  few  his- 
torical paintings  exhibit  a  most  dismal  vein  of  superstition. 

The  absence  of  the  nude,  which  was  strictly  prohibited  by 
the  Jspanish  Inquisition,  is  characteristic;  also  the  absence 
of  the  genre  and  of  the  portrayal  of  all  actualities  until  the 
time  of  Velasquez. 

In  method  of  treatment,  Spanish  painting  after  the  six- 
teenth century  resembles  the  Naturalist  School  of  Italy,  led 
by  Caravaggio. 

SCHOOLS    OF  PAINTING. 

By  some  writers  the  painters  have  been  classified  in  three 
schools.  This  classification  is  local  rather  than  by  charac- 
teristics. The  first  is  the  Castilian,  or  School  of  Madrid ; 
the  second,  the  School  of  Valencia;  and  the  third,  the  Anda- 
lusian,  or  School  of  Seville. 

We  will  first  notice  the  most  important  names  of  the 

158 


SPANISH  PAINTING.  159 

CASTILIAN  SCHOOL,  OR  SCHOOL  OF  MADRID. 

Pedro  Berruguette  (dates  of  life  unknown)  was  painter  to 
Philip  I.  His  best  works  are  altar-pieces  in  the  Cathedrals 
of  Toledo  and  of  Avila,  and  in  the  Museum  of  the  Prado, 
Madrid. 

Antonio  del  Rincon  (about  1446-1500)  painted  religious 
subjects  and  portraits.  The  style  of  his  compositions  and 
his  methods  of  treatment  give  reason  for  the  belief  that  he 
studied  in  Florence,  possibly  under  Andrea  del  Castagno  or 
Domenico  Ghirlandajo. 

Very  few  of  his  works  are  in  existence.  The  most  important 
are  seventeen  pictures  representing  scenes  in  the  life  of  the  Virgin, 
in  the  Church  of  Robleda  de  Chavela,  near  the  Escorial. 

Alonzo  Berruguette  (about  1480-1561)  was  a  pupil  of  Michael 
Angelo,  whom  he  assisted  in  his  work  in  Rome.  He  was 
painter,  sculptor,  and  architect.  After  he  had  completely 
acquired  the  Florentine  style  of  work  he  returned  to  Spain. 

His  paintings  are  good  in  composition,  but  somewhat  hard 
and  cold  in  treatment. 

Those  now  to  be  seen  are  chiefly  altar-pieces,  sculptured  and 
painted,  in  the  church  of  the  Benedictines,  Valladolid  ;  the  Cathe- 
dral, Toledo  ;  the  Church  of  Ventosa ;  and  the  Cathedral  of 
Palencia. 

Gaspar  Becerra  (1520-1570),  like  Alonzo  Berruguette,  was 
painter,  sculptor,  and  architect,  and  studied  with  Michael 
Angelo.     Few  of   his    paintings  have  been   preserved;   of 
those  the  best  are  : 
Frescoes,  in  the  Alcdzar,  a  royal  Moorish  palace  in  Seville. 

Luis  de  Morales  (about  1510-1586)  was  called  by  his 
countrymen  "  The  Divine,"  because  of  his  perfect  execu- 
tion. It  is  not  known  that  he  studied  in  Italy,  but  his 
works  render  it  probable. 


160  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

He  painted  many  pictures  of  the  Christ  and  Madonna, 
and  heads  full  of  sentiment  rather  than  strength.  These 
are  small,  painted  on  wood,  and  show  a  Flemish  influence  in 
the  exquisite  elaboration  of  detail  and  the  stiffness  of  drapery. 
His  coloring  is  pure  and  his  light' and  shade  admirable. 

Examples  are  in  the  Museum  of  the  Prado,  Madrid  ;  Museum, 
Toledo  ;  Louvre,  Paris  ;  and  National  Gallery,  London. 

Alonzo  Sanchez  Coello  (1515-1590)  is  chiefly  noted  for  his 
portraits.  He  was  painter  to  Philip  II,  who  called  him  his 
Portuguese  Titian,  because  he  had  studied  the  Titians  in 
Madrid  and  had  formerly  been  in  the  service  of  Don  Juan 
of  Portugal.  He  painted  many  portraits  of  Philip  II  and 
other  court  dignitaries. 

His  work,  however,  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  Titian  in 
color,  in  drawing,  and  in  handling.  It  is  more  like  that  of 
the  Flemish  painter,  Antonio  Moro,  with  whom  he  at  first 
studied. 

Examples  are  in  the  Museum  of  the  Prado,  Madrid ;  in  the 
Escorial ;  and  Museum,  Brussels. 

Juan  Fernandez  Navarette  (1526-1579),  called  El  Mudo 
(The  Dumb),  spent  many  years  in  Venice,  where  he  became 
a  great  admirer  and  follower  of  Titian. 

His  works  are  marked  by  fine,  rich  color,  fair  drawing  of 
the  figure,  and  a  good  treatment  of  drapery. 

Examples  are  in  the  Museum  of  the  Prado,  Madrid,  and  in  the 
Escorial,  where  are  his  best  works. 

Domenico  Theotocopuli  (15 48?- 1625)  was  by  birth  a  Greek, 
and  probably  a  pupil  of  Titian.  He  had  a  high  reputation 
in  his  day.  It  is  said  that  some  of  his  pictures  were  even 
mistaken  for  those  of  Titian. 

He  was,  however,  very  eccentric,  and  many  of  his  works 
are  marked  by  gross  extravagances  both  in  drawing  and 
color.  His  portrait  painting  is  good. 


SPANISH  PAINTING. 


161 


Cathedral, 


Examples  : 

"Parting  of  Christ's  Raiment  before   Crucifixion." 

Toledo. 

"  Martyrdom  of  St.  Maurice."     Escorial. 
Several  works  in  Museum  of  the  Prado,  Madrid. 
"  St.  Jerome."     National  Gallery,  London^ 

giego  de  Silva  Vplflsqiift*  (1599-1660),  the  greatest  name  in 
the  scKooTof  Madrid,  is  also,  beyond  question,  the  greatest 
in  Spanish  art.  His 
masters  were  Herrera 
and  Pacheco,  both  of 
the  Andalusian  School 
(he  was  born  in  Se- 
ville) ;  he  also  studied 
in  Italy,  but  the  best 
of  all  his  knowledge 
was  gained  directly 
from  nature. 

He  was^  a  student 
of  mankind,  and.  like 
Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
used  to  wander  about 
the  city  streets  seeking 
models  for  his  brush. 

He  painted  religious 
pictures,  portraits, 
landscape,  and  genre.' 
His  best  pictures,  how- 
ever, are  those  in  which 
there  is_the  least  need 
of  imagination.  The 

-  -  '  ,—  —  ""  ~ 


He  was  court  painter 

tO_Philip     IV,    and 


VELASQUEZ.    ^Esop.    MUSEUM,  MADR,D. 


162  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

painted  many  royal  portraits,  which  rank  with  those  by 
Titian  and  Vandyke. 

His  genre  pictures  rise  almost  to  the  level  of  historical 
painting. 

Characteristics.  —  As  a  realist  Velasquez  has  never  been 
surpassed.  His  portraits  .Hy_e,  breathe^  and  seem  ready  fon 
action.  This  effect  is  increased  by  his  power  of  represent- 
ing atmosphere^  His  backgrounds  have  the  appearance  of 
concavity,  and  so  his  figures  seem  to  be  surrounded  by 
space. 

In  composition  everything  keeps  its  place  singularly  well. 

His  technique  is  very  broad,  yet  no  detail  is  lost  that  is 
essential  to  the  portrayal  of  character. 

His_handling  is  a  model  for  artists,  so  light,  so  free,  so 
sure  is  it. 

His  color  is  low-keyed  but  most  rich,  full,  and  harmonious. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Crucifixion,"  "  Forge  of  Vulcan,"  "  Tapestry  Weavers,"  "  Maids 
of  Honor,"  "^sop,"  portraits  of  Philip  IV  and  many  others. 
Museum  of  the  Prado,  Madrid. 

"  Joseph's  Coat "  and  others.     The  Escorial. 

"  Pope  Innocent  X."     Doria  Gallery,  Rome. 

Portrait  of  Philip  IV.     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

Portrait  of  Infanta  Marguerite  and  others.     Louvre,  Paris. 

Portraits  of  Philip  IV  and  of  Admiral  Pare'ja,  "Christ  at  the 
Column."  National  Gallery,  London. 

"  Water  Carrier."     Apsley  House,  London. 

Portraits  in  important  art  museums  of  this  country. 

SCHOOL  OF  VALENCIA. 

Vincente  Joanes,  commonly  called  Juan  de  Juanes  (1523- 
1579),  after  a  period  of  study  in  Italy,  established  a  school 
of  painting  at  Valencia.  A  true  mediaeval  Spanish  painter, 
his  art  was  inspired  wholly  by  a  superstitious  religion.  It 


SPANISH  PAINTING.  163 

is  said  that  he  never  painted  a  picture  of  Christ  or  the  Virgin 
without  having  first,  fasting,  partaken  of  the  Holy  Com- 
munion. 

The  backgrounds  of  many  of  his  pictures  are  of  gold,  his 
figures  are  stiff  in  drawing,  his  color  brilliant,  the  detail 
labored,  but  he  possessed  a  power  of  expression  beyond  his 
contemporaries. 

His  portraits  are  especially  good. 

The  most  important  of  his  pictures  are  in  the  Cathedral  and 
churches  of  Valencia.  Eighteen  are  in  the  Museum  of  the  Prado, 
Madrid. 

Francisco  Ribalta  (1551-1628)  was  son-in-law  to  Juanes. 
The  romantic  story  is  told  that,  having  been  refused  by  the 
father  of  the  young  woman  he  loved,  Ribalta  studied  in  Italy. 

One  day  Juanes,  seeing  some  of  his  work,  said  to  his 
daughter,  "  The  artist  who  did  this  I  would  have  you  wed, 
instead  of  the  daubster  Ribalta." 

The  Italian  works  that  chiefly  influenced  him  are  those 
of  Raphael  and  Sebastian  del  Piombo.  He  also  probably 
studied  for  a  time  under  the  Carracci  in  Bologna. 

His  chief  subjects  are  Christs,  Holy  Families,  and  saints. 
His  pictures  have  a  fine  general  effect ;  the  figures  are  noble 
and  well  drawn,  the  faces  fine  and  expressive,  and  the  color- 
ing rich. 

Everything  shows  strong  Italian  influence. 

The  most  noted  of  Ribalta's  pupils  was  Ribera,  Lo 
Spagnoletto  (see  page  128). 

Ribalta's  chief  works  are  in  the  Museums  of  Valencia  and 
Madrid. 

Juan  de  Ribalta  (1597-1628),  son  of  Francesco,  painted 
pictures  similar  to  those  of  his  father.  After  him  the 
school  of  Valencia  merged  into  the  Andalusian. 


164  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

ANDALUSIAN  SCHOOL,  OR  SCHOOL  OF  SEVILLE. 

Luis  de  Vargas  (1502-1568),  like  Juan  de  Juanes,  painted 
only  after  Confession  and  Communion. 

He  studied  in  Italy,  and  brought  home  to  Seville  a  knowl- 
edge and  love  of  Italian  art.  He  painted  in  both  fresco 
and  oil,  but  his  frescoes  have  mostly  perished. 

His  works  are  somewhat  unequal  and  show  diverse  influ- 
ences. In  some  the  Virgin  and  Holy  Child  are  reminis- 
cences of  Raphael.  In  softness  of  treatment  he  often 
resembles  Correggio,  while  the  accuracy  of  some  of  his 
details  rivals  that  of  the  Flemish  masters. 

Chief  works  are  in  Cathedral,  Seville. 

Pablo  de  Cespedes  (1538-1608),  of  Cordova,  is  a  noted 
name  of  this  school.  He  studied  in  Italy,  where  he  was 
especially  influenced  by  the  works  of  Correggio,  and  brought 
new  brilliancy  of  color  to  the  school  of  Seville. 

He  was  particularly  strong  in  invention.  His  figures  are 
marked  by  a  careful  rendering  of  anatomy  and  much  skill 
in  foreshortening.  He  is  also  noted  as  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect, and  especially  as  a  writer  of  both  prose  and  poetry. 

Most  of  his  finest  works  have  perished. 

A  "  Last  Supper  "  is  in  the  Cathedral  of  Cordova,  and  two  or 
three  pictures  in  the  Contaduna  Mayor,  Seville. 

Juan  de  las  Roelas  (i558?-i625)  was  born  in  Seville,  and 
through  study  in  Venice  became  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
Italian  art.  His  work  resembles  somewhat  that  of  Tinto- 
retto, and  also  that  of  the  Carracci  in  general  style  and 
execution.  His  coloring  is  Venetian,  his  composition  good, 
and  he  sometimes  displayed  a  real  greatness  of  form  and 
majesty  of  character  in  choosing  his  subjects. 

His  finest  works  are  in  the  Museum  and  Cathedral  of  Seville. 
Another  important  picture  is  the  "Translation  of  St.  Isidorus,"  in 
Church  San  Isidore,  Seville. 


SPANISH  PAINTING.  165 

Francisco  Pacheco  (1571-1654)  is  more  noted  for  his  writ- 
ings (the  chief  of  which  is  "  Art  of  Painting  ")  than  for  his 
pictures. 

He  was  an  agent  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  one  of  his 
chief  missions  being  to  see  that  no  pictures  representing  the 
nude  should  be  sold. 

His  work  is  marked  by  harsh  color  and  labored  execution. 
He  is  best  in  portraiture. 

Examples  may  be  seen  in  the  Museum,  Madrid. 

Alonzo  Cano  (1601-1667)  was  both  painter  and  sculptor, 
and  has  been  called  the  Spanish  Michael  Angela,  though 
he  never  studied  in  Italy.  He  was  a  man  of  strong  contra- 
dictions. He  is  said  to  have  possessed  most  violent  pas- 
sions ;  was  a  duellist,  and  the  reputed  murderer  of  his 
wife,  yet  his  subjects  are  all  sacred,  and  his  designs  are 
noble  and  pure,  and  possess  a  tender  sentiment.  He  loved 
sculpture  best,  and  line  and  modelling  in  his  pictures  are 
sculpturesque.  He  borrowed  much  from  others,  so  that  his 
work  may  be  called  eclectic. 
His  best  works  are  in  the  Cathedral,  Granada;  Museum  and 

Cathedral,  Madrid. 
Examples  may  also  be  seen  in  Museum,  Berlin ;  Gallery,  Dresden ; 

and  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 

Francisco  de  Herrera  (the  Elder)  (1576-1656)  was  a  most 
bold  and  vigorous  painter,  and  seems  to  have  prepared  the 
way  for  Zurburan,  and  for  Velasquez,  who  was  one  of  his 
pupils.  He  was  a  violent  man,  and  it  is  said  that  his  brutal 
treatment  drove  his  pupils  from  his  studio  as  well  as  his 
children  from  his  home.  His  style  of  painting  grew  out  of 
his  character. 

His  composition  is  most  powerful,  his  drawing  broad  and 
true,  his  handling  bold  and  dashing.  He  painted  many 
frescoes  which  have  perished. 

Examples  are  in  Museum  and  Cathedral,  Seville. 


166  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Francisco  de  Zurburan  (1598-1662)  stands  second  only  to 
Velasquez  and  Murillo,  and  is  perhaps  more  generally  known 
than  any  other  Spanish  artist  except  these,  since  many  of 
his  paintings  are  outside  of  Spain. 

All  his  characteristics  are  intensely  Spanish ;  his  color  is 
rich,  his  vigor  impassioned,  and  his  drapery  rather  stiff  and 
conventional.     His   favorite   subjects  were  fanatic   monks, 
whom  he  represented  with  a  fine  satire. 
Representative   works   are   in   Cathedral  and   Museum,   Seville ; 

Museum,   Madrid;    Dresden    Gallery;    Louvre,   Paris;   and 

National  Gallery,   London. 

Bartolome*  Est£ban  Murillo  (1618-1682),  born  at  Seville, 
was  a  pupil  of  Velasquez,  and  is  the  greatest  name  in  the 
AndalusianjSchool.  There  is  a  remarkable  difference  in 
the  work  of  these  two  great  Spanish  artists. 

Velasquez  showed  the  greater  originality,  and  is  by  far  the 
stronger  in  all  techntcal  excellencies  that^pearespjecially to 
the  artist.  Murillo  possessed  more  sentiment  and  a  greater 
love  for  beauty  and  grace,  and  appeals  more  strongly  to  the 
hearts  of  the  people.  His  earliest  works  show  the  same 
naturalistic  tendency  as  those  of  Velasquez,  but  he  chose 
those  subjects  that  are  more  sentimental,  —  flower  girls  and 
ragged  street  boys,  —  whose  faces  are  soft  and  sweet,  never 
coarse  and  hardened.  He  painted  many  religious  or  devo- 
tional pictures,  and  his  influence  in  his  native  city  may  be 
known  from  the  fact  that  even  at  the  present  day  a  Sevillian 
calls  any  unusually  noble  picture  a  "  Murillo. " 

Characteristics.  —  Murillo  painted  in  three  distinct  styles 
or  manners.  In  those  pictures  (mostly  genre),  painted 
before  he  fell  under  the  influence  of  Velasquez  and  of  the 
Venetians  and  Vandykes  in  the  Madrid  Museum,  there  is 
a  predominance  ofjcool_colors,  browns  and  grays.  After- 
ward his  coloring  is  wa^m_jjid^Qinparatiyely  rich.  Most  of 
his  usual  Bible  scenesjare  painted  in  this  second  style. 


SPANISH  PAINTING. 


167 


MURILLO.    MADONNA  OF  THE  ROSARY.     PITTI  GALLERY,  FLORENCE. 

For  his  Holy  Conceptions  and  Annunciations  he  used  what 
is  called  his  misty  style  —  an  uncertain  outline  and  a  very 
s^ft^jmos^confused^iningling  of  colors. 

His  chiaroscuro  is  always  soft.  His  Madonnas  have  earn- 
est faces,  are  dark-eyed  and  dark-haired  young  matrons. 


168  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

His  renderings  of  child  life  are  always  most  happy ;  the 
Child-Christ  possesses  a  charming  mixture  of  divine  and 
human  expression. 

Most  important  works : 

"St.  Anthony  of  Padua  and  Infant  Jesus,"  "St.  Thomas  of 
Villanueva,"  "  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,"  and  others.  Museum, 
Seville. 

"  Children,  Jesus  and  John  Baptist,"  "  Conception,"  "  Annuncia- 
tion," "The  Divine  Shepherd."  Museum  of  the  Prado,  Madrid. 

"  St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary  ministering  to  Lepers."  Academy  of 
St.  Ferdinand,  Madrid. 

"  Virgin  of  the  Rosary,"  "  Virgin  and  Child."  Pitti  Gallery, 
Florence. 

"Virgin  and  Child."     Gallery,  Dresden. 

"  Immaculate  Conception"  (numbered  among  the  twelve  pictures 
sometimes  called  "World  Pictures"1),  "Holy  Family" 
(sometimes  called  "  Virgin  of  Seville  "),  "  Angels'  Kitchen," 
"  Beggar  Boy."  Louvre,  Paris. 

"  St.  Anthony  of  Padua  with  Christ-Child."     Museum,  Berlin. 

"  Melon  Eaters,"  "  Boys  Playing  Dice,"  "  Boy  and  Girl  counting 
Money."  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 

"  The  Holy  Family."     National  Gallery,  London. 

After  Velasquez  and  Murillo  there  are  no  names  of  special 
importance  in  Spanish  art  until  Francisco  Goya  (1746-1828), 
who  painted  horribly  realistic  scenes  of  inquisition,  tortures, 
bullfights,  battles,  etc.  He  was  influenced  in  technique  by 
Velasquez. 

Since  Goya,  Spanish  painting  has  been  much  influenced 
by  French.  A  few  names  worthy  of  notice  are  :  Mariano 
Fortuny  (1838-1874),  painter  of  oriental  scenes;  Raimundo 
de  Madrazo  (1841—  — ),  portrait  painter;  Eduardo  Zamacois 
(1842-187 1),  painter  of  the  higher  genre  ;  Vincente  Palmaroli ; 
Roman  Ribera ;  and  Martin  Rico,  landscape  painter. 

i  See  p.  51. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

FLEMISH    PAINTING. 

No  Flemish  or,  exactly  speaking,  Netherlandish  painting 
(since  Belgium  and  Holland  were  at  first  comprised  within 
the  one  term,  Netherlands),  earlier  than  the  fifteenth  century, 
other  than  miniatures  and  manuscript  illuminations,  are  in 
existence. 

Characteristics.  —  Flemish  painting  until  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury was  dependent  on  the  art  of  no  other  country,  so  far  as 
known.  Chief  subjects  at  first  were  wholly  religious,  and 
most  of  the  pictures  were  designed  for  the  church.  These 
are  painted  in  oils  on  wood,  and  are  comparatively  small  in 
size. 

Everything  is  strongly  realistic  and  represented  in  abso- 
lute detail.  There  are  no  ideal  figures ;  whereas  the  Italian 
painters  idealized  even  portraits,  the  early  Flemish  painters 
gave  a  portrait-like  character  to  their  representations  of  God, 
Christ,  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  saints. 

The  draperies,  which  were  evidently  always  local  costumes, 
are  perfect  in  texture.  Landscapes  which  were  often  used 
as  accessories  are  correct  in  drawing  and  of  good  tone  and 
atmosphere.  Coloring  is  warm  and  full.  The  early  works 
express  more  sentiment  than  later  ones  and  are  simple  in 
conception. 

Portrait  painting  is  an  important  feature.  Early  in  the  six- 
teenth century  Flemish  painting  fell  under  Italian  influence. 

Hubert  van  Eyck  (1366  ?-i426)  and  his  brother,  John  van 
Eyck  (1390  ?-i44o),  born  in  Bruges,  Flanders,  are  the  earliest 

169 


170  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

known  names.  To  them  belongs  the  credit  of  having  in- 
vented an  excellent  varnish,  which  gave  to  oil  colors  a  fresh 
brilliance  and  caused  them  to  dry  quickly,  thus  greatly  facili- 
tating their  use.  For  this  they  are  often  called  the  inventors 
of  oil  painting. 

The  advanced  character  of  the  Van  Eyck  painting  causes 
the  belief  that  good  works  produced  by  preceding  artists 
must  have  existed  in  their  time,  which  have  since  been  lost 
to  the  world.  The  small  size  of  Flemish  pictures  compared 
with  Italian,  and  the  fact  that  they  were  painted  on  movable 
panels,  together  with  the  unsettled  condition  of  the  country, 
sufficiently  account  for  their  complete  loss. 

Characteristics  of  Van  Eyck  Painting.  —  In  composition  it 
is  far  behind  contemporary  Italian  painting. 

The  figures,  portrait-like  in  character,  are  represented  with 
much  rigidity  of  attitude  and  with  little  attempt  at  foreshort- 
ening. They  are  rather  tall  and  slender,  are  well  modelled, 
and  are  clothed  with  the  richest,  most  lavishly  decorated 
garments.  Indeed,  spiritual  radiance  is  expressed  by  gor- 
geous raiment  and  glittering  jewels. 

The  coloring  is  applied  with  full  body  and  rich  medium, 
and  is  so  blended  that  no  marks  of  the  brush  are  visible. 
Flesh  tints  are  very  warm. 

Detail  is  minutely  finished.  Each  precious  stone  seems  to 
invite  one  to  lift  it  from  the  robe  or  crown  ;  and  each  golden 
thread  of  embroidery  is  as  carefully  painted  as  the  face  of 
the  garment's  wearer. 

Landscapes  are  always  a  feature  in  the  works  of  John  van 
Eyck.  These  are  small  in  size,  many  of  them  being  seen 
through  an  open  window  in  the  background,  and  are  utterly 
faithful  to  nature  in  drawing,  in  aerial  perspective,  and  in 
atmosphere.  His  portraits  are  perfect  in  realism. 

But  one  picture  remains  to  show  the  character  of  Hubert 
van  Eyck's  painting.  This  is  a  large  altar-piece,  called  the 


FLEMISH  PAINTING. 


171 


"  Adoration  of  the 
Lamb,"  which  was 
painted  by  both 
brothers  for  the 
church  of  St. 
Bavon,  Ghent. 

It    was    doubt- 
less   designed    by 
Hubert,   and   it  is 
believed  that  he 
painted  the  figures 
of  the   Deity,  Vir- 
i  gin  Mary,  St.  John 
Baptist,  St.  Cecilia, 
with   the   angels 
playing  on  musical 
instruments;  Adam 
and    Eve    on    the 
upper  panels ;  and 
on  the  lower,  that 
side  of  the  centre 
picture  which  con- 
tains  the    apostles 
and  saints ;  also  the 
wing  pictures  rep- 
resenting  the  her- 
mits and  pilgrims, 
with  the  exception 
of  the  landscapes. 
After  the  death  of 
Hubert   the    altar- 
piece  was  finished 
by   John.     This 
great  work  is  now 
divided    and    scat- 
tered.     Only    one 
panel,   the   central 


HUBERT  VAN  EYCK.     ST.  CBCILIA  FROM  ST.  BAVON 
ALTAR-PIBCK.     BERLIN  MUSEUM. 


172  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

one,  containing  the  Lamb,  surrounded  by  worshippers,  is  now  in 
St.  Bavon,  Ghent.  The  two  panels,  representing  Adam  and  Eve, 
are  in  the  Brussels  Museum,  and  all  the  remaining  ones  are  in  the 
Berlin  Museum. 

Important  works  by  John  van  Eyck  are : 

"  Virgin,  Child,  and  Saints."     Academy,  Bruges. 

"  St.  Ursula."     Museum,  Antwerp. 

"  Salvator    Mundi,"    "  Man   with    Pinks,"    and    panels    of    St. 

Bavon  Altar-piece.     Museum,  Berlin. 
Altar-piece.     Dresden  Gallery. 
"  Triumph  of  the  Church."     Museum,  Madrid. 
Portraits  of  Jean  Arnolfini  and  his  wife.    National  Gallery,  London. 
"  Madonna  with  Chancellor  Rollin."     Louvre,  Paris. 

Pieter  Christus  ( 1472)  was  a  pupil  of  John  van  Eyck, 

whose  works  are  very  inferior  to  those  of  his  master.  The 
real  which  he  painted  is  of  a  lower  order  than  that  of  the 
Van  Eycks  ;  his  figures  are  stunted ;  his  colors  untransparent, 
yet  his  work  is  interesting. 

Examples  are  in  Berlin  Museum  ;  Staedel  Museum,  Frankfort ; 
Madrid  Museum  ;  Gallery,  Turin. 

Rogier  van  der  Weyden  (1400-1464)  was  born  at  Tournai 
and  painted  at  Brussels.  His  work,  though  that  of  a  realist, 
does  not  at  all  follow  the  Van  Eycks,  but  possesses  distinct 
characteristics,  some  of  which,  such  as  his  treatment  of 
shadows  and  paleness  of  color,  seem  to  have  come  from  a 
study  of  sculptured  bas-relief. 

He  visited  Italy,  where  he  was  received  with  marked  dis- 
tinction, but  was  wholly  uninfluenced  by  the  art  of  that 
country. 

His  early  pictures,  like  those  of  the  Van  Eycks,  have  all 
been  lost.  No  other  Flemish  master  exerted  so  much  influ- 
ence as  he. 

Characteristics.  —  His  subjects  are  religious,  and  are  usu- 
ally those  that  express  deep  sorrow  and  suffering.  It  has 


FLEMISH  PAINTING.  173 

been  said  that  he  never  painted  a  smile.  He  surely  painted 
many  faces  that  are  furrowed  by  grief  and  stained  by 
tears. 

Many  of  his  compositions  are  enclosed  by  richly  carved 
portals,  every  detail  of  which  is  laboriously  finished. 

His  figures  are  defective  in  drawing,  especially  the  limbs, 
which  are  often  meagre  and  tottering. 

He  represents  spirituality  by  very  large  heads  or  foreheads, 
which  are  sometimes  so  heavy  that  they  droop  on  one  side ; 
and  the  amount  of  expression  is  shown  by  the  size  of  the 
eyes.  Suffering  is  represented  by  leanness  of  flesh  and 
contraction  of  muscles.  His  color  is  pale;  his  shadows 
wanting  in  force ;  his  draperies  much  broken  by  sharp  con- 
ventional angles.  The  amount  of  his  ornamentation  is  small 
for  a  Flemish  painter. 

He  was  fond  of  introducing  landscapes  into  his  back- 
grounds, which  are  most  carefully  rendered,  but  lack  the 
atmosphere  of  John  van  Eyck's. 

Most  important  works : 

Altar-piece,  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  "  Annunciation,"  and 
"  Presentation  of  the  Virgin,"  "  St.  Luke  painting  the  Ma- 
donna." Old  Pinacothek,  Munich.  (A  duplicate  of  the 
latter  is  in  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts.) 

Altar-piece.     Berlin  Museum. 

"  Descent  from  the  Cross."     Gallery,  The  Hague. 

"The  Seven  Sacraments."     Museum,  Antwerp. 

Pictures  in  Staedel  Museum,  Frankfort,  and  in  Museum,  Madrid. 

Hans  Memling  (about  1425-1495?)  is  a  very  distinguished 
name  in  this  school.  It  is  not  known  where  he  was  born, 
but  he  lived  and  painted  in  Bruges,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Rogier  van  der  Weyden.  His  early  work 
resembles  very  closely  that  of  this  master,  but  the  later  is 
far  superior.  His  figures  are  better  drawn  in  every  detail ; 
his  outlines  are  softer  ;  his  light  and  shade  truer. 


174  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Characteristics.  —  Memling  possessed  a  finer  feeling  for 
beauty,  refinement,  and  grace  than  is  common  to  Flem- 
ish painters.  His  faces,  especially  those  of  women,  have 
a  peculiarly  pure,  sweet,  and  attractive  expression.  His 


HANS  MEMLING.    MADONNA  AND  CHILD.    DARMSTADT. 

Madonnas  are  full  of  tender  devotion.  He  loved  to  repre- 
sent his  figures  enveloped  in  long  brocaded  robes,  but  did 
not  quite  equal  Van  der  Weyden  in  working  out  the  details 
of  textures  and  embroideries. 

His  portraits  are  especially  good,  and  portray  the  character 
of  the  subjects  better  than  do  even  those  of  John  van  Eyck. 

His  flesh  tints  are  particularly  clear,  soft,  and  pleasing. 


FLEMISH  PAINTING.  175 

Representative  works : 

Several  pictures  in  St.  John's  Hospital,  Bruges,  among  which  are 
the  only  two  inscribed  with  the  artist's  name.  Here  also 
is  the  famous  "  Shrine  of  St.  Ursula " ;  a  chest  of  Gothic 
design,  about  four  feet  in  length,  made,  according  to  tradition, 
to  hold  an  arm  of  the  saint.  On  every  side  are  paintings  by 
Memling  which  illustrate  the  history  of  St.  Ursula  and  her 
attendant  martyr-virgins." 

"Madonna  and  Child,"  "Enthroned  Madonna  and  Child." 
Museum,  Berlin. 

"  St.  John  Baptist,"  "  Seven  Joys  of  the  Virgin."  Old  Pinacothek, 
Munich. 

"Seven  Sorrows  of  the  Virgin."  Gallery,  Turin.  The  last  two 
pictures  are  remarkable  for  the  extension  of  the  landscape, 
in  which  are  included  various  scenes  which  cluster  about  the 
life  of  the  Virgin.  Landscape,  towns,  palaces,  and  figures  are 
all  exquisitely  painted. 

"  Madonna  and  Child."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

"Virgin  and  Infant  Christ,  adored  by  Donors,"  "  Marriage  of  St. 
Catherine."  Louvre,  Paris. 

"  Madonna  and  Infant  Christ  enthroned  in  a  Garden,"  "  St.  Law- 
rence and  St.  John  the  Baptist."  National  Gallery,  London. 

Portraits  in  Museum,  Brussels  ;  and  in  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

Dieriek  Stuerbouts,  called  Bouts  (1410-1475),  was  also  a 
follower  of  Rogier  van  der  Weyden,  whose  influence  is  seen 
in  his  drawing  of  the  figure  and  the  melancholy  of  his  faces. 
There  is,  however,  a  greater  variety  in  Bouts'  heads,  and 
much  more  individuality,  character,  and  beauty. 

His  color  is  unusually  full  and  rich,  and  his  flesh  painting 
admirable. 

His  draperies  fall  in  softer  folds  than  those  of  the  Van 
Eycks  and  Van  der  Weyden,  but  his  representation  of 
textures  is  not  so  good. 

His  landscape  backgrounds  are  very  true  and  fairly  well 
treated. 


176  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Representative  works : 

Altar-pieces.     St.  Peter's,  Louvain. 
Several  pictures  in  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 
"  Elijah  in  the  Wilderness  fed  by  an  Angel,"  "  First  Celebration 
of  the  Passover."     Museum,  Berlin. 

Gerard  van  der  Meire  (1427  ?-i474  ?)  painted  pictures  which 
are  marked  by  many  Van  der  Weyden  qualities —  stiff  figures 
with  large  foreheads,  meagre  limbs,  hard  outlines,  pale  color, 
insufficient  shade  and  shadowj  and  angular  draperies.  His 
landscapes  are  very  minute  and  laboriously  finished. 

His  most  important  work  is  an  altar-piece,  containing  a  large 
number  of  figures,  in  a  chapel  of  St.  Bavon,  Ghent. 

Gheerardt  David  (about  1450-1523)  is  chiefly  famous  for  his 
landscape  backgrounds.  These  are  painted  with  excessive 
fidelity  to  nature ;  even  the  methods  of  branching  and  leafage 
of  trees  have  been  studied  and  rendered,  and  with  all  this  a 
pleasing  breadth  has  been  secured.  Coloring  of  landscape 
is  brilliant.  His  figures  are  harsh  and  without  any  grace  or 
beauty.  The  vivid  contrasts  of  color  in  their  garments  are 
unpleasant. 

Representative  works : 

"  Baptism  of  Christ."     Academy,  Bruges. 

"  Crucifixion."     Museum,  Berlin. 

"  Marriage  of  Cana."     Louvre,  Paris. 

"  Canon  and  Patron  Saints."     National  Gallery,  London. 

Quentin  Matsys  (also  spelled  Metsys  and  Massys)  (1460?- 
1529),  born  in  Louvain,  was  brought  up  as  a  blacksmith, 
and  became  distinguished  for  his  skill  in  ornamental  iron- 
work. Falling  in  love  with  the  daughter  of  an  artist,  he  for- 
sook the  anvil  for  the  easel,  in  order  to  please  the  father 
and  win  the  daughter,  and  in  time  became  one  of  the  most 
noted  artists  of  this  period.  He  painted  in  Antwerp. 


FLEMISH  PAINTING.  177 

At  this  time  Flemish  art  was  rapidly  changing  through 
the  influence  of  the  work  of  the  Italian  masters. 

More  and  more  northern  artists  felt  their  lack  of  study 
direct  from  nature,  and  their  want  of  power  in  painting  the 
human  figure,  and  began  to  bend  all  their  strength  in  this 
direction,  striving  to  compete  with  their  fellow-artists  in 
Italy. 

Matsys  evinced  an  independence  and  a  breadth  of  thought 
beyond  those  who  had  painted  before  him.  His  works  mark 
the  close  of  the  early  period  of  Flemish  art  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  later  one. 

Characteristics.  —  His  pictures  are  remarkable  for  great 
power  and  intense  dramatic  expression.  It  seems  as  if  his 
chief  thought  had  been  to  paint  energy  of  expression. 

He  wrought  a  change  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  figures 
introduced  to  three-quarters,  or  even  full  size,  thus  making 
them  the  most  important  thing  in  the  picture.  These,  in 
his  religious  pictures  especially,  are  still  somewhat  angular, 
after  the  early  Flemish  fashion. 

His  execution  is  most  careful  ;  his  color  varied  and  clear, 
and  not  so  rich  and  full  as  in  most  of  the  early  Flemish 
pictures. 

He,  first  of  this  school,  painted  purely  genre  pictures  ; 
in  all  his  work  the  individual  characterization  is  finely 
rendered. 

Most  important  works  : 

"  Descent  from   the    Cross,"  Heads   of   Christ   and   the   Virgin. 

Museum,  Antwerp. 
Altar-piece.     Cathedral,  Louvain. 
"  Virgin  and  Child."     Museum,  Berlin. 
"  Virgin  and  Child."     Museum,  Amsterdam. 

"  Pieta,"  "St.  Jerome,"  "  Ecce  Homo."    Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 
"  Christ    bestowing    Blessing,"    "  The    Banker    and    his    Wife." 

Louvre,  Paris. 


178  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

"  Salvator   Mundi  "    and   "  Virgin    Mary."      National   Gallery, 

London. 
"  Two    Misers."     Windsor  Castle.      Possibly   this   picture   and 

duplicates,  which  appear  in  other  galleries,  were  painted  by 

Jan  Matsys,  son  of 


Jan  Gossaert,  called  Mabuse  (1470  ?-i54i),  painted  in  early 
life  purely  Flemish  pictures,  marked  somewhat  by  the  Van 
Eyck  influence.  Afterward  he  visited  Italy  and  was  the 
first  Flemish  artist  to  paint  the  nude.  Such  representa- 
tions, as  might  be  expected,  are  untruthful,  exaggerated, 
and  awkward  in  attitude  and  movement.  They  are,  how- 
ever, well  modelled  and  well  painted.  Those  smallest  in  size 
are  most  pleasing.  His  portraits  are  very  attractive. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Ecce  Homo  "  and  other  pictures.     Museum,  Antwerp. 

"  Christ  in  House  of  Simon."     Museum,  Brussels. 

"  Neptune    and    Amphitrite,"    "  Young    Girl   weighing    Gold." 

Museum,  Berlin. 

"  Virgin  and  Child,"  "  Danae."     Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 
"  Virgin   and   Child."      Portrait   of  Jean    Carondelet.      Louvre, 

Paris. 
Portraits.     National  Gallery,  London. 

Bernard  (sometimes  Barent)  van  Orley  (1490  ?-i  5  41),  of 
Brussels,  imitated  the  Italians,  especially  Raphael. 

His  earlier  works  are  his  best,  being  marked  by  a  greater 
earnestness  of  feeling  than  later  ones.  His  color  is  more 
Flemish  than  Italian,  and  his  execution  is  most  careful.  He 
painted  in  oil  and  tempera. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Last  Judgment."     Church  of  Our  Saviour,  Antwerp. 

"  Pieta."     Museum,  Brussels. 

Altar-piece.     Belvidere  Gallery,  Vienna. 

"  Mary  and  Joseph  adoring   Infant  Saviour."     Gallery,  Dresden. 


FLEMISH  PAINTING.  179 

Cornells  Engelbrechsten  (1468-1533)  was  influenced  by  the 
Van  Eyck  School,  and  was  quite  distinguished  among  his 
contemporaries. 

Only  one  work  that  is  surely  his  is  in  existence  —  an  altar-piece 
in  the  Town  Hall  of  Leyden. 

Lucas  van  Leyden  (1494-1533),  a  pupil  of  Engelbrechsten, 
was  a  prolific  artist,  whose  works  display  a  good  measure  of 
ability. 

In  scenes  illustrating  common  life  he  anticipated  the  com- 
ing Dutch  School.  His  figures  are  considerably  mannered 
and  possess  a  coquettish  air ;  his  aerial  perspective  and  color 
are  especially  notable. 

He  is  particularly  famous  for  his  fine  engravings. 

Good  examples  may  be  found  in  the  museums  of  Leyden  and 
Antwerp,  and  in  the  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 

Lambert  Sustermann,  called  Lambert  Lombard  (1506-1 566), 
born  at  Lie'ge,  was  a  pupil  of  Mabuse.  Afterward,  going  to 
Italy,  he  studied  with  Andrea  del  Sarto.  Returning  to  Lie'ge, 
he  opened  a  large  school  and  exerted  great  influence  in 
diffusing  the  Italianized  Flemish  painting. 

His  figures  are  somewhat  mannered,  most  carefully  drawn, 
and  very  lightly  shaded  and  colored,  being  little  more  than 
colored  drawings. 

His  pictures  are  very  rare  and  may  be  found  in  the  museums  of 
The  Hague  and  Berlin,  and  in  the  National  Gallery,  London. 

Other  names  of  some  note  belonging  to  this  period  of 
Italianized  Flemish  painting  are  Lancelot  Blondeel  (1495- 
1561),  who  painted  Italianized  Flemish  figures  against  Re- 
naissance backgrounds;  Franz  Floris  (1520-1570),  a  pleas- 
ing portrait  painter  ;  his  pupil,  Martin  de  Vos  (1531-1603)  ; 
and  Otto  Vaenius  (1560-1629),  historical  painter. 

Among  those  who  may  be  called  Dutch  Flemish  artists, 
born  in  Holland  and  influenced  by  the  Flemings,  are  Pieter 
Pourbus  (i5io?-i584?)  and  Antonio  Moro  (1512  ?-i578  ?), 


180  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

portrait  painters  ;  the  three  Breughels,  Pieter  the  Elder  ( 

1569),  Pieter  the  Younger  (i564?-i637  ?),  and  Jan  (1568- 
1625),  painters  of  landscape  and  genre;  and  the  Brill 
brothers,  Matthew  ( 1580)  and  Paul  (1556-1626),  land- 
scape painters.  The  latter  went  to  Italy  and  there  painted 
and  taught  his  own  Flemish  methods. 

Peter  Paul  Rubens  (1577-1640),  born  in  Siegen,  is  by  far 
the  greatest  name  in  later  Italianized  Flemish  art.  After 
studying  with  native  artists  he  went  to  Italy,  visited  and 
painted  in  many  cities  of  that  country,  and  on  his  return  to 
Antwerp  received  commissions  from  all  the  chief  European 
cities.  His  society  and  works  were  contended  for  by  kings 
and  princes  ;  he  was  invited  by  Marie  de  Medicis  to  come 
to  Paris,  where  he  celebrated  her  life  in  a  series  of  colossal 
pictures ;  was  knighted  by  Philip  IV  of  Spain  and  by 
Charles  I  of  England  ;  in  short,  enjoyed  one  of  the  most 
successful  art  careers  ever  known. 

He  was  an  all-round  artist ;  possessed  energy  and  perse- 
verance, a  love  for  study  and  growth,  a  fine  classic  education 
that  widened  his  field  of  subjects  ;  a  breadth  and  command 
of  technique  unknown  before  him,  and  an  intense  love  for 
color.  His  reputation  was  so  great  and  widespread  that  he 
lacked  neither  sphere  nor  means  for  doing  his  best,  so  that 
in  his  work  we  find  all  that  of  which  he  was  capable. 

His  pictures  are  very  numerous,  in  the  painting  of  many 
of  which  he  was  aided  by  pupils. 

Characteristics.  —  His  creativeness,  that  greatest  gift  to 
artists,  is  largest  in  the  history  of  art  ;  his  invention  is 
boundless. 

His  subjects  are  scriptural,  historical,  mythological,  por- 
trait, landscape,  and  animals. 

In  his  religious  pictures  he  followed  the  traditions  of 
Catholic  Italy.  Yet  there  is  very  little  that  seems  Christian 
in  spirit  when  his  work  is  compared  with  that  of  the  greatest 


FLEMISH  PAINTING. 


181 


Italian  masters ;  for  his  Madonnas,  martyrs,  and  saints,  his 
Christs  and  apostles,  are  devoid  of  all  spiritual  expression. 


RUBENS.     HOLY  FAMILY.     PITTI  GALLERY,  FLORENCE. 

In  many  of  his  mythological  pictures  he  paid  little  heed 
to  the  ideal  heaven  of  mythology.  Whether  he  represented 
Minerva,  Juno,  or  Venus,  Mercury  or  Paris,  all  are  marked 
by  an  excess  of  animal  life  that  overpowers  all  thought  of 


182  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

dignity  or  sentiment.  His  Bacchanalian  scenes  represent 
not  simply  an  exuberance  of  joy,  but  are  coarse  and  repel- 
lent to  every  fine  instinct. 

In  historical  pictures  he  very  often  had  not  the  slightest 
regard  for  the  customary  proprieties  of  time  and  place,  but 
grouped  together  all  kinds  of  personages,  mythological  and 
historical,  ideal  and  real,  divine  and  human,  and  fitted  all 
surroundings  to  his  own  gorgeous  conceptions. 

His  portraits  are  exceptionally  fine,  full  of  character,  and 
powerful  with  latent  action. 

His  landscapes,  usually  classic  in  theme,  are  noble.  His 
paintings  of  animals,  especially  of  wild  animals  of  prey,  are 
magnificently  rendered. 

One  of  his  very  strongest  characteristics  is  the  power  of 
rendering  dramatic  action,  and  wherever  this  is  found,  in 
religious,  mythological,  or  historical  pictures,  we  feel  that  we 
are  looking  upon  the  work  of  a  master.  His  composition  is 
fine  ;  his  drawing  and  light  and  shade  are  bold  and  true ; 
his  coloring  is  most  full  and  rich ;  "  Does  he  mix  blood  with 
his  paints  ?  "  asked  Guido  Reni  on  first  seeing  some  of  his 
pictures. 

His  technique  is  unsurpassed  —  broad  and  firm. 

Most  important  works : 

"  Elevation  of  the  Cross,"  "  Descent  from  the  Cross  "  (numbered 
among  the  twelve  pictures  sometimes  called  "World  Pic- 
tures " x).  Cathedral,  Antwerp. 

"  Crucifixion."     Museum,  Antwerp. 

"Last  Judgment,"  "Fall  of  Angels,"  "Battle  of  the  Amazons," 
"  Rape  of  Daughters  of  Leukippos  by  Castor  and  Pollux," 
"  Drunken  Silenus  with  Satyrs  and  Bacchante,"  portraits 
'  of  Rubens  and  his  first  wife,  Isabella  Brandt ;  of  second 
wife,  Helena  Fourment,  and  others ;  "  Lion  Hunt."  Old 
Pinacothek,  Munich. 

i.See  p.  51. 


FLEMISH  PAINTING.  183 

"  Quos  Ego ! "  "  Lion  Hunt,"  many  portraits.     Gallery,  Dresden. 

"Ignatius  Loyola  casting  out  Devils,"  "Francis  Xavier  preach- 
ing and  working  Miracles,"  "  Assumption  of  Virgin."  Belvi- 
dere  Gallery,  Vienna. 

"Raising  of  Lazarus,"  "  Neptune  and  Amphitrite,"  "  Perseus  Lib- 
erating Andromeda,"  "  Stag  Hunt."  Museum,  Berlin. 

"  Garden  of  Love  "  and  other  pictures.     Museum,  Madrid. 

Twenty-one  pictures  of  the  Life  of  Marie  de  Me"dicis,  painted 
originally  for  the  Palace  of  the  Luxembourg,  and  portraits. 
Louvre,  Paris. 

"  Judgment  of  Paris,"  portraits,  among  which  is  the  famous 
"  Straw  Hat,"  animal  pieces,  and  landscapes.  National 
Gallery,  London. 

Franz  Snyders  (1579-1657),  next  to  Rubens,  is  the  greatest 
animal  painter  of  his  time.  He  sometimes  painted  the  ani- 
mals introduced  into  Rubens'  pictures,  while  that  master 
reciprocated  by  painting  the  figures  in  Snyder's  works. 

He  also  painted  genre  pictures,  into  which  he  loved  to 
put  game  and  vegetables. 

His  color  and  technique  show  the  influence  of  Rubens. 

His  reputation  was  very  great  and  his  pictures  much 
sought  for. 

Representative  works : 

"  Combat  between  Bears  and  Dogs."     Museum,  Berlin. 
"Kitchen  scene  with  game,  etc.,"  •"  Lionesses   after   Roebuck," 

"  Boar  Hunt."     Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 
"  Kitchen  scene  "  (in  which  a  man  and  woman  cook  were  painted 

by  Rubens),  "Boar  Hunt."     Gallery,  Dresden. 
"  Stag  Hunt  "  and  "  Boar  Hunt."     Louvre,  Paris. 

Gaspar  de  Craeyer  (1582-1669)  painted  in  Brussels  and 
Ghent.  His  work  is  usually  marked  by  quiet  composition, 
subdued  color,  considerable  truth  to  nature,  and  a  facility  of 
technique  that  compares  well  with  that  of  Rubens. 


184  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

His  chief  subjects  are  Biblical ;  he  sometimes  attempted 
historical  and  allegorical  scenes,  and  in  these  there  is  con- 
siderable action.  He  also  executed  decorative  painting. 

His  most  important  works  are  found  in  the  galleries  of  Ghent 
and  Brussels  and  in  the  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 

Other  names  of  some  importance  contemporary  with 
Rubens  are  Abraham  van  Diepenbeck  (1596-1675),  who  was 
strongly  influenced  by  Rubens,  and  Lucas  van  Uden  (1595- 
1672),  landscape  painter,  who  often  painted  the  landscape 
backgrounds  of  Rubens'  pictures. 

Anthony  van  Dyck  (1599-1641)  stands  first  among  the 
actual  pupils  of  Rubens,  and  is  especially  famous  for  his 
portrait  painting,  though  in  his  early  years  he  produced 
many  religious  pictures  of  high  rank.  His  great  ambition 
was  to  be  a  historical  painter  and  to  receive  great  commis- 
sions, as  did  Rubens,  and  the  failure  of  this  was  a  bitter 
disappointment. 

His  later  life  was  spent  in  England,  where  he  became 
court  painter  to  Charles  I  ;  here  he  painted  a  great 
number  of  portraits  of  the  royalty  and  the  nobility.  His 
work  degenerated  somewhat  during  the  last  years  of  his 
life. 

Characteristics.  —  His  feeling  for  nature  is  much  more 
refined  than  that  of  Rubens,  but  he  falls  far  below  that 
master  in  scope  of  invention  and  force  of  representation. 

His  religious  pictures  are  marked  by  intensity  of  expres- 
sion and  much  elevation  of  sentiment.  Into  these  he  was 
fond  of  introducing  child-angels. 

His  earliest  pictures  show  a  certain  dependence  on 
Rubens.  The  forms  are  strongly  pronounced  and  have 
occasionally  a  clumsy  look,  while  the  faces  are  somewhat 
coarsely  realistic,  and  the  flesh  tints  are  very  warm. 

His  later  works  are  marked  by  cooler  color  and  a  greater 
refinement  of  face  and  figure. 


FLEMISH  PAINTING.  185 

To  his  portraits  he  imparted  a  peculiar  air  of  distinction  ; 
his  men,  women,  and  children,  all  are  aristocratic.  The  cos- 
tumes of  his  time  were  favorable  to  the  beauty  of  his  art — 
the  broad,  rich,  falling  collar  with  deep  scallops  of  point  lace, 
which  has  received  the  name  of  Van  Dyck,  the  rich  stuffs  of 


VAN  DYCK.    CHILDREN  OF  CHARLES  I  OF  ENGLAND.    DRESDEN  GALLERY. 

garments,  the  broad  hats  with  ostrich  feathers,  etc.  ;  as  also 
the  short  face  curls  of  his  women  and  the  pointed  ("  Van 
Dyck  ")  beards  of  his  men. 

The  same  type  of  long,  slender  hand  appears  always ;  it  is 
said  to  be  a  portrait  of  his  own. 

Most  important  works : 

"  Descent  from  Cross,"  "  Crucifixion."     Museum,  Antwerp. 
"Crucifixion."     Cathedral,  Mechlin. 


186  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

"  Repose   in   Egypt,"    "  Descent   from    Cross,"   portraits.      Old 

Pinacothek,  Munich. 
"St.   Jerome,"    "Portrait   of    Henrietta    Maria,"   "Children   of 

Charles  I  and  Henrietta  Maria,"  and  other  portraits.    Gallery, 

Dresden. 

"  Descent  from  Cross,"  "  Three  Penitents."     Museum,  Berlin. 
"Virgin  and  Child  enthroned,"  "  Portrait  of  Charles  I."      Belvi- 

dere  Gallery,  Vienna. 
"  Children  of  Charles  I  "  (in  which  is  the  "  Stuart  Baby,"  made 

so  familiar  by  reproductions  after  Canoveri's  copy  in  "St. 

Luke's  Academy,"  Rome).     Gallery,  Turin. 
"Virgin  and  Donators,"  "Portrait  of  Charles  I,"  "Children  of 

Charles  I,"  "  Portrait  of  Man  and  Child,"  "  Portrait  of  Woman 

and  Child."     Louvre,  Paris. 
"Crucifixion,"    "Equestrian  Portrait  of    Charles    I."     National 

Gallery,  London. 
Notable  portraits  in  Windsor  Castle,  Warwick  Castle,  and  other 

private  galleries  in  England. 

)Cjacob  Jordaens  (1593-1678)  holds  second  place  among 
Rubens'  pupils.  He  was  a  very  prolific  painter  ;  his  sub- 
jects are  Biblical,  historical,  mythological,  allegory,  and 
portrait.  His  Biblical  pictures  are  seldom  satisfactory. 

His  works  are  very  strongly  realistic,  so  much  so  as  some- 
times to  merit  the  term  vulgar.  Many  are  humorous.  In 
technique  and  color  he  approaches  Rubens. 

The  best  of  his  religious  pictures  is  "  The  Adoration  of  the 
Shepherds,"  Museum,  Antwerp. 

His  best  mythological  picture  is  "  Jupiter  and  Mercury "  in 
Belvidere  Gallery,  Vienna.  Here  also  is  a  characteristic  picture, 
"  The  Bean  Feast." 

Other  representative  works  are  in  Berlin  Museum ;  Dresden 
Gallery ;  Louvre,  Paris ;  and  Museum,  Madrid. 

David  Teniers  the  Younger  (1610-1690),  of  Antwerp,  is  one 
of  the  first  important  painters  of  the  purely  genre  scenes, 
which  attained  much  celebrity  at  this  time.     The  artists  who 


FLEMISH  PAINTING.  187 

devoted  themselves  to  the  production  of  this  style  of  paint- 
ing received  the  name  Little  Masters.  A  much  larger  and 
stronger  representation  of  this  work  appeared  almost  con- 
temporaneously in  Holland. 

Teniers  was  instructed  by  his  father,  and  was  strongly 
influenced  by  Rubens. 

His  subjects  are  most  varied  :  landscapes,  cattle  pieces, 
incantation  scenes,  guard  houses,  merry-makings  out-of- 
doors  and  in,  and  tavern  scenes  ;  the  last  being  most  fre- 
quently and  perhaps  most  successfully  treated. 

He  was  a  thoroughly  equipped  artist,  and  in  his  works  we 
see  picturesque  composition,  good  drawing,  exquisite  har- 
mony of  low-toned  color,  and  fine  technique. 

He  used  his  pigment  thinly,  so  thinly  that  in  some  of  his 
most  characteristic  pictures  much  of  the  ground  can  be  seen 
through  it. 

Two  distinct  styles  of  coloring  are  seen,  one  a  pre- 
dominance of  rich  golden  tones,  the  other  of  cool  silvery 
ones. 

His  earlier  pictures  are  large,  his  later  small  and  most 
carefully  finished. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Peasant  Wedding,"  "  Fair  "  (in  which  the  artist  and  his  family 
are  represented).  Belvidere  Gallery,  Vienna. 

"  Drinking  Party,"  "  Dinner  of  Monkeys,"  "  Dutch  Ale  House, 
with  Peasants  dancing  and  playing  Cards."  Old  Pinacothek, 
Munich. 

"  Peasants  smoking  in  Village  Inn,"  "  The  Alchemist,"  "  Peasants 
throwing  Dice."  Gallery,  Dresden. 

"Village  Festival"  and  others.     Museum,  Berlin. 

"  Prodigal  Son,"  "  Peasant  Feast,"  "  Guard-room  with  Peter  deny- 
ing Christ  in  the  Background,"  etc.  Louvre,  Paris. 

"Village  Fete,"  "The  Surprise,"  "Backgammon  Players."  Na- 
tional Gallery,  London. 


188  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Adrian  Brouwer  (1606-1638),  born  in  Flanders,  properly 
belongs  to  this  school,  though  he  painted  for  a  few  years  in 
Holland,  where  he  was  connected  with  Franz  Hals.  Later, 
returning  to  Flanders,  he  fell  under  the  influence  of  Rubens. 

His  subjects  are  mostly  low  tavern  scenes  ;  many  of  them 
represent  quarrels  and  fights. 

His  methods  of  work  and  color  are  similar  to  those  of 
Teniers. 

He  may  be  studied  in  Munich,  where  are  about  twenty  of  his 
pictures ;  in  Dresden  Gallery,  Berlin  Museum,  and  Louvre,  Paris. 


Other  names  of  this  time  are  Gonzales  Coques  (1618-1684), 
portrait  painter,  who  strove  to  imitate  Van  Dyck  ;  Paul  de 
Vos  (1604-1678),  Pieter  Boel  (1622-1702?),  and  Jan  Fyt 
(1611-1661),  animal  painters;  and  Peter  Snayers  (1593- 
1670?),  painter  of  military  scenes. 

BELGIAN  ART. 

Later  Flemish  art,  called  Belgian  art,  is  represented  by 
Antony  Wiertz  (1806-1865),  whose  eccentric  productions 
may  be  studied  in  Wiertz  Museum,  Brussels  ;  Gustavus 
Wappers  (1803-1874),  who  was  influenced  by  the  French 
Romantic  School ;  Jean  Auguste  Leys  (1815-1869),  a  painter 
of  many  historical  and  national  pictures  ;  Florent  Willems 
(1823-1905),  a  painter  of  fashionable  genre;  Eugene  Joseph 
Verboeckhoven  (1799-1881),  animal  painter;  Emile  Wauters 
(1846 ),  portrait  and  historical  painter;  and,  most  im- 
portant of  all,  Laurenz  Alma-Tadema  (1836—  — ),  for  many 
years  a  resident  of  London,  whose  pictures  are  mostly  repre- 
sentations of  classic  life,  filled  with  oriental  magnificence  and 
luxury. 

Examples  are  "  Phidias  and  the  Elgin  Marbles,"  "  The  Death 
of  the  First-born,"  "  Sappho,"  and  "  Cleopatra." 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

DUTCH    PAINTING. 

IT  is  extremely  difficult  to  separate  Dutch  painting  in 
its  beginnings  from  Flemish.  Indeed,  no  decided  line  of 
demarcation  appears  until  the  last  of  the  sixteenth  or  first  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  after  Holland  had  achieved  her  inde- 
pendence and  thus  had  become  a  free  Protestant  country. 

Characteristics.  —  Comparatively  few  religious  pictures  were 
painted.  In  them  the  change  of  religion  from  Catholicism 
to  Protestantism  is  apparent.  The  Virgin  Mary  is  repre- 
sented not  as  Queen  of  Heaven,  with  nimbus  or  diadem, 
but  is  most  often  clad  in  the  ordinary  garb  of  a  woman  of 
the  country.  The  chief  interest  centres  in  Christ  and  his 
works  of  redemption.  Saints  are  less  freely  introduced. 
Italian  methods,  so  closely  followed  by  contemporary  Flem- 
ish painters,  are  set  aside.  The  art  seems  to  have  grown 
directly  out  of  the  individual  character  of  the  people,  and  rep- 
resents those  scenes  that  most  closely  engage  their  everyday 
life.  Domestic  pictures,  genre  and  portrait,  predominate. 

Everything  is  very  realistic  and  detail  is  much  elabo- 
rated. Most  pictures  are  small. 

Michael  Janse  Mierevelt  (1567-1641),  born  in  Delft,  is  one 
of  the  earliest  notable  Dutch  portrait  painters. 

He  delighted  in  painting  the  aristocracy,  and  his  work  is 
marked  by  a  very  truthful  feeling  for  his  subjects  and  all 
their  accessories. 

His  drawing  is  good ;  his  coloring  warm  and  full.  He 
was  a  prolific  painter. 

i8q 


190  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Good  examples  of  his  work  are  in  Hotel  de  Ville,  Delft ;  in 
Amsterdam  Museum  ;  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich  ;  Gallery,  Dresden ; 
and  Louvre,  Paris. 

His  son  and  pupil,  Pieter  Mierevelt,  also  painted  well. 

Franz  Hals  the  Younger  (1584-1666)  produced  works  that 
are  most  distinctively  Dutch  in  spirit,  and  which  seem  to 
have  been  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  the  models  for  most 
of  the  succeeding  painters  of  Holland. 

His  subjects  are  groups  of  archers,  or  of  civic  bodies, 
family  portraits,  and  single  figures. 

His  portraits  are  remarkable  for  their  sense  of  reality. 
In  many  of  them  there  is  a  decided  feeling  for  the  genre. 
Sometimes  there  is  a  humorous  element.  His  expressions 
are  most  animated. 

His  color  in  early  pictures  is  warm  ;  in  later  ones  a  cool, 
silvery  tone  appears. 

His  technique  is  broad,  free,  and  sure.  Most  of  his 
pictures  are  of  good  size. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Archers'  Feast,"  "  Civic  Guard  Banquet."     Museum,  Haarlem. 
"  Archers'    Guild,"    "  Toper  with    Glass   of    Wine."     Museum, 

Amsterdam. 

Portraits.     Berlin  Museum  ;  Louvre  ;  National  Gallery,  London. 
Examples   may  be  seen  in   Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York ; 

Art  Institute,  Chicago;  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston. 

Rembrandt  van  Ryn  (1607-1669),  born  in  Leyden,  is  the 
greatest  name  of  this  school.  His  masters  were  unimportant 
artists  ;  his  love  for  the  study  of  nature  was  the  strongest 
influence  in  his  art  life.  This  developed  very  early,  and  at 
the  age  of  twenty-three  he  went  to  Amsterdam,  and  soon 
painted  some  of  his  best  pictures.  A  brief  season  of  great 
prosperity  followed,  for  he  married  the  daughter  of  a  wealthy 
burgher  and  received  many  commissions.  He  established 


DUTCH  PAINTING.  191 

a  large  school  and  exerted  much  influence  on  Dutch  art. 
He  gathered  a  large  and  valuable  collection  of  pictures  and 
other  art  treasures,  which,  after  the  death  of  his  wife,  when 
he  had  become  bankrupt,  were  all  sold  at  auction.  His 
misfortunes  did  not  weaken,  but  rather  strengthened  his 
painting.  He  never  travelled,  like  other  artists,  but  spent 
all  his  years  in  Amsterdam. 

He  was  throughout  life  a  profound  student  of  nature,  and 
since  common  humanity,  age,  and  even  deformity  and  death 
appealed  to  him  more  strongly  than  wealth,  luxury,  or  beauty, 
he  spent  much  time  in  wandering  through  the  poorest  stfeets 
of  the  city  seeking  models. 

He  painted  religious  pictures,  the  higher  genre,  portraits, 
landscapes,  and,  occasionally,  mythological  pictures. 

His  etchings  are  very  famous  and  valuable. 

Characteristics.  —  In  his  religious  pictures  we  find  not  the 
slightest  trace  of  Italian  methods  of  treatment.  He  cared 
nothing  for  traditionary  proprieties  of  costume  and  acces- 
sories, but  clothed  his  people  (who  are  real  Dutch  men  and 
women,  burghers  or  peasants,  Jews  or  Turks  as  he  chose)  in 
their  everyday  costumes. 

His  "  Christ  "  lived  not  alone  in  Palestine,  but  was  an  uni- 
versal Christ,  whose  only  nimbus  was  his  love  and  pity; 
who  was  present  healing  the  sick  or  teaching  the  multitudes 
of  Amsterdam,  just  as  really  as  those  of  Capernaum  and 
Jerusalem. 

In  his  pictures  of  the  higher  genre,  he  has  given  us  noble 
types  of  the  Dutch  people.  The  figures  and  faces,  all  pos- 
sess individuality  and  character. 

His  composition  and  drawing  are  sometimes  weak.     His 

treatment  of  light  and  shade,  especially  in  his  later  pictures 

(his  early  ones  often  possess  a  clear,  daylight  tone),  distin- 

'   guishes  him  from  all  other  artists,  and  is  the  strongest  and 

most  individual  element  of  his  work.     Indeed,  it  sometimes 


192 


THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


seems  as  if  the  meaning  of  his  work,  its  dramatic  interest, 
its  pathos,  its  spiritual  intent,  are  revealed  through  its  chi- 


REMBRANDT.     PORTRAIT  OF  OLD  MAN.    O'LD  PINACOTHEK,  MUNICH. 


aroscuro  instead  of  by  its  composition  or  the  expression  of 
its  figures.     In  some  of  his  very  latest  works  we  can  but 


bVTCH  PAINTING.  193 

believe  that  the  picture  revealed  itself  first  to  him  in  dazzling 
light  and  shadows,  which  afterward  he  peopled  as  he 
chose. 

This  light  and  shadow  follows  no  ordinary  rules  of  chi- 
aroscuro ;  it  is  arbitrary,  sudden,  and  partial ;  it  is  an  illumi- 
nation in  a  dark  space.  It  is  fantastic  rather  than  natural 
light. 

His  portraits  are  exceptionally  strong,  his  faces  are  ani- 
mated and  characteristic,  and  his  peculiar  use  of  chiaroscuro 
is  especially  adapted  to  this  class  of  painting. 

His  landscapes  do  not  appear  to  be  the  representations 
of  any  particular  places;  they  are,  however,  full  of  the  most 
intense  feeling  for  nature;  they  are  poetic;  most  often  a 
melancholy  feeling  of  solitude  breathes  from  them. 

His  color,  like  his  light  and  shade^  is  arbitrary;  his 
earlier  pictures  are  comparatively  clear  and  cool ;  his  later 
color  is  full  of  rich,  warm,  golden  browns,  while  his  last  are 
very  warm. 

His  technique  is  utterly  unlike  the  great  mass  of  Dutch 
painting.  He  soon  lost  his  first  careful  method  of  repre- 
senting detail,  and  grew  very  broad  in  handling,  until  in 
some  of  his  latest  pictures  almost  all  detail  is  lost  in  color 
and  chiaroscuro.  He  had  a  habit  of  using  very  stiff  brushes, 
and  sometimes  even  the  handle  of  his  brush,  whose  marks 
can  be  plainly  discerned. 

Most  important  works  : 

"The  Syndics,"  "The  Night  Guard."  Gallery,  Amsterdam. 
(This  by  some  is  numbered  among  twelve  pictures  sometimes 
called  "  World  Pictures."  J) 

"  Anatomy  Lecture."     Museum,  The  Hague. 

"Descent  from  the  Cross,"  "Nativity,"  "Entombment,"  "Sacri- 
fice of  Isaac,"  "Portrait  of  a  Turk."  Old  Pinacothek, 
Munich. 

1  See  p.  51. 


194  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

"  Portrait  of  Wife  Saskia,"  "  Portrait  of  Old  Man  "  and  others, 
"  Samson  putting  forth  his  Riddle  at  Wedding  Feast."  Gal- 
lery, Dresden. 

Portraits,  "  Samson  threatening  his  Father-in-law."  Museum, 
Berlin. 

Landscape.     Gallery,  Cassel. 

"  Disciples  at  Emmaus,"  "  Philosophers,"  portraits.  Louvre, 
Paris. 

"  Woman  taken  in  Adultery,"  "  Adoration  of  Shepherds," 
"Woman  Bathing,"  portraits  and  landscapes.  National 
Gallery,  London. 

Many  of  Rembrandt's  works  are  in  private  galleries,  especially  in 
England.  Portraits  in  important  art  museums  of  this  country. 

Ferdinand  Bol  (1611-1680)  was  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt,  and 
at  first  followed  his  master  quite  closely  ;  later  he  attempted 
to  imitate  Rubens. 

He  is  most  noted  for  his  portraits,  many  of  which  are  full 
of  a  fine  animation.  His  color  is  marked  by  a  disagreeable 
preponderance  of  yellow. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Regents."     Museum,  Amsterdam. 

Portraits.  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich  ;  Berlin  Museum ;  Louvre, 
Paris ;  and  National  Gallery,  London. 

Govaert  Flinck  (1615-1660),  also  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt, 
followed  him  so  closely  that  some  of  his  works  have  been 
mistaken  for  those  of  his  master.  He  painted  Bible  scenes, 
portraits,  and  genre. 

Representative  works : 

"Archers,"  "  Regents,"   "  Isaac  blessing  Jacob."     Museum,  Am-    . 

sterdam. 

Portraits.     Museum,  Rotterdam. 
"Expulsion  of  Hagar,"  portrait.     Museum,  Berlin. 
"  Dutch  Guard-room."     Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 
"  Angels  announcing  Birth  of  Christ,"  portrait.     Louvre,  Paris. 


DUTCH  PAINTING. 


195 


Other  important  portrait  painters  are  Bartholomew  van  der 
Heist  (1613-1670),  Gerbrandt  van  der  Eckhout  (1621-1674), 
Samuel  van  Hoogstraten  (1627-1678),  and  Carl  Faber  (called 
Fabritius)  (1624-1654). 

"  DUTCH  LITTLE  MASTERS,"  OR  DUTCH  GENRE  PAINTERS. 

Gerard  Terburg  (often  written  Terboch)  (1617-1681)  was 
devoted  to  the  representations  of  the  higher  class  of  society. 


TERBURG.    LADY  WASHING  HANDS.    DRBSDEN  GALLERY. 

His  works  are  small  but  are  marked  by  a  most  careful 
study  of  atmosphere  and  relation,  so  that  they  often  possess 
a  delightful  sense  of  spaciousness. 


196  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

His  composition  is  quiet  and  simple,  his  color  subdued 
and  most  harmonious,  and  his  technique  perfect,  delicate 
but  firm.  He  is  especially  known  for  what  are  called  con- 
versation pieces^  in  which  he  frequently  introduced  a  lady  in  a 
white  satin  dress,  which  forms  the  chief  light  of  the  picture. 
He  was  very  successful  in  the  rendering  of  all  costly  cos- 
tumes, silk  and  satin  and  precious  stones. 

In  painting  an  interior  he  managed  with  great  delicacy 
the  light  and  shade  which  adds  a  special  charm  to  such 
pictures. 

A  few  portraits  painted  by  him  are  in  existence  and  are 
most  highly  prized. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Paternal  Counsel."     Museum,  Amsterdam. 

"  Officer  and  Young  Girl,"  portrait   of   himself.     Museum,  The 

Hague. 

"  Trumpeter  delivering  Letter  to  Lady."     Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 
"  Officer   writing     Letter,"    "  Lady   washing    Hands."      Gallery, 

Dresden. 

«  The  Lute  Player."     Gallery,  Cassel. 
"  The  Consultation,"  portraits.     Berlin  Museum. 
"  Music  Lesson,"  "  Concert."     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Guitar  Lesson."     National  Gallery,  London. 

Gabriel  Metsu  (1630-1667)  and  Caspar  Netscher  (1639- 
1684)  painted  genre  pictures  of  the  higher  social  life  of 
the  day,  but  did  not  confine  themselves  to  such  wholly  as 
did  Terburg,  but  often  chose  market  scenes,  maids  in  the 
kitchen,  etc. 

Their  pictures  are  much  prized,  and  are  to  be  found  in  Amster- 
dam ;  The  Hague  ;  Munich  ;  Dresden  ;  Berlin  ;  the  Louvre,  Paris  ; 
and  National  Gallery,  London. 

Gerardj)ou  (1613-1675)  is  one  of  the  most  widely  known 
masters  of  genre.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt  and  at 
first  devoted  himself  to  portrait  painting.  He  also  painted 


DUTCH  PAINTING, 


197 


some  scriptural  scenes,  but  the  great  mass  of  his  work  rep- 
resents the  middle  and  lower  classes  of  Dutch  life.  He 
rarely  chose  the  higher  class  for  a  subject. 

His  pictures  are  small  and  seldom  contain  more  than  two 
or  three  figures.  His  drawing  is  excellent.  He  had  a  feel- 
ing for  the  picturesque  and  for  strong  shades  and  shadows. 
Many  of  his  scenes  are  lighted  only  by  the  lantern  or  the 
candle.  His  detail  is  the  most  exact  and  minute  possible, 
and  is  everywhere  equally  elaborated.  He  spent  as  much 
time  and  care  on  the  painting  of  a  broomstick  as  of  a  face. 

Many  examples  of  his  work  are  in  the  Museum,  Amsterdam  ; 
in  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich;  Dresden  Gallery;  St.  Petersburg; 
Louvre,  Paris ;  and 
National  Gallery, 
London ;  the  most 
noted  of  which  are, 
perhaps,  "The  Wo- 
man Sick  with  Drop- 
sy," Louvre ;  "  Even- 
ing School,"  and 
portrait  of  Pieter  van 
der  Werff,  Museum, 
Amsterdam;  and 
"Poulterer's  Shop," 
National  Gallery, 
London. 


Franz  van  Mieris 


FRANZ  VAN  MIERIS.    OLD  PEOPLE  EATING.    UFFUI 
GALLERY,  FLORENCE. 


(1635-1681),  pupil 
of  Gerard  Dou,  closely  followed  his  master,  though  he  more 
often  painted  scenes  in  the  higher  class  of  society.  There 
is  a  spirit  of  humor  in  some  of  his  works  that  reminds  one 
of  Jan  Steen.  His  pictures  are  small  and  show  minuteness 
of  execution.  He  also  painted  portraits,  but  was  not  suc- 
cessful in  the  expression  of  faces. 


198  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

The  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich,  possesses  many  of  his  best  works. 
Good  examples,  however,  are  to  be  found  in  Uffizi  Gallery,  Flor- 
ence ;  Dresden  Gallery ;  Belvidere  Gallery,  Vienna ;  and  The 
Hermitage,  St.  Petersburg. 

Godefried  Schalken  (1643-1706),  also  a  pupil  of  Gerard 
Dou,  chose  to  represent  most  of  his  scenes  as  if  lighted  by 
a  candle  or  torchlight.  His  effects,  though  quite  picturesque, 
are  not  very  true  to  nature. 

His  general  treatment  is  inferior  to  Dou's. 

He  occasionally  painted  scriptural  subjects,  but  not  suc- 
cessfully. 

His  works  are  in  most  European  galleries. 

Adrian  van  Ostade  (1610-1685)  was  a  pupil  of  Franz  Hals 
and  a  follower  of  Rembrandt.  His  subjects  are  taken  from 
humble  life.  In  their  representation  he  used  many  figures, 
which  he  managed  extremely  well  in  composition ;  often, 
they  are  out-of-doors ;  and  landscape  and  atmosphere  are 
agreeably  rendered.  His  pictures  are  full  of  animation  and 
interest.  His  coloring  is  warm  and  strong  —  his  pigment 
rich  and  solid.  His  technique  is  more  free  than  that  of 
most  of  his  contemporaries. 

He  excelled  in  etching. 

Representative  works : 

"  Party  drinking,  smoking,  etc.,"  "  Itinerant  Fiddler."     Museum, 

The  Hague. 

"  Peasants  in  an  Inn,"  "  Artist  and  his  Easel."    Dresden  Gallery. 
"  The  Schoolmaster,"  "  Fish  Market,"  etc.     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  The  Alchemist."     National  Gallery,  London. 
Many  examples  are  in  private  galleries  in  England. 

Jan  Steen  (1625  ?-i6y9)  painted  all  kinds  of  low  Dutch 
merrymakings ;  also  delighted  in  representing  homely  family 
scenes  —  parents  with  their  children,  etc.  He  possessed  the 
rare  talent  of  painting  faces  overflowing  with  expression; 


DUTCH  PAINTING.  199 

this,  with  his  quaint  sense  of  humor,  distinguishes  his  work 
easily  from  the  mass  of  genre  painting. 

His  coloring  and  technique  rank  him  with  Hals  and  Van 
Ostade. 

His  out-of-door  effects  are  particularly  true  and  pleasing. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Painter  and  his  Family,"  "  Representation  of  Human  Life  "  (a 
party  of  about  twenty  people,  variously  disposed,  eating 
oysters).  Museum,  The  Hague. 

"  St  Nicholas  Day,"  "  Young  Lady  and  Parrot."  Museum,  Am- 
sterdam. 

"  Feast  of  Beans."     Gallery,  Cassel. 

"Quarrel  between  Card  Players,"  "The  Doctor's  Visit."  Old 
Pinacothek,  Munich. 

"  Mother  and  Child."     Dresden  Gallery. 

"  Breakfast  in  Garden."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

"  Peasant  Fete,"  "  Family  Repast."     Louvre,  Paris. 

"  Music  Master."     National  Gallery,  London. 

More  than  half  the  pictures  painted  by  Steen  are  in  private  galleries 
in  England. 

Pieter  de  Hooghe,  or  Hooch  (about  1630-1681),  was  a  wonder- 
ful painter  of  out-of-door  effects  seen  from  an  interior.  His 
subjects  are  most  simple  —  a  courtyard  or  interior  of  a 
room,  with  open  doorway  or  window  through  which  sunlight 
is  streaming. 

His  figures  (seldom  more  than  two)  keep  their  places 
extremely  well;  but  the  chief  merits  of  the  pictures  are 
the  composition  of  color  masses  and  the  light  and  shade. 

His  favorite  colors  are  red,  and  deep,  sunny  yellows. 

He  was  first  appreciated  by  the  English,  and  most  of  his 
works  are  in  private  collections  of  that  country. 

The  following  good  examples  are  in  galleries  : 

"  Woman  and  Child  at  Entrance  of  Cellar."  Museum,  Amsterdam. 
"  Dutch  Living  Room."  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 


200  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

"  Dutch  Mother."     Museum,  Berlin. 

"  Playing  Cards,"  "  Room  in  Dutch  House."     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Courtyard    of    Dutch    House,"    "  Interior   of    Dutch    House," 
"  Court  of  Dutch  House."     National  Gallery,  London. 

Jan  van  der  Meer  of  Delft  (1632-1675)  was  one  of  the  most 
delightful  of  Dutch  genre  and  landscape  painters.  His  works 
somewhat  resemble  those  of  De  Hooghe,  but  possess  more 
brightness  of  tone ;  also,  they  more  often  represent  ladies 
and  gentlemen  than  peasants.  The  scene  is  usually  placed 
in  a  small,  elegant  room  lighted  by  a  latticed  casement,  the 
atmosphere  and  coloring  of  which  are  admirably  managed. 

His  pictures  are  rare. 

Representative  works : 

"View  of  Delft  with  Figures."     Museum,  The  Hague. 

"  Milkmaid,"    "  Dutch    House   with    People."      Six    Collection, 

Amsterdam. 

"  Young  Woman  with  Two  Men."     Gallery,  Brunswick. 
"  Girl  with  Lover,"  "  Girl  reading  Letter."     Dresden  Gallery. 
"  Bubble-Blower,"  "  Rustic  Cottage."     Museum,  Berlin. 
"  Three  Men  and  Three  Women."     Academy,  Vienna. 

Nicholas  Maas,  or  Maes  (1632-1 693),  was  a  fellow-painter  of 
Van  der  Meer.  His  genre  pictures,  whose  subjects  are  of 
humble  life,  seldom  contain  more  than  two  figures,  usually 
women,  and  possess  no  particularly  distinctive  characteristics. 

He  painted  portraits,  which  with  their  accessories  are 
almost  historical  pictures.  A  large  number  are  in  private 
collections  in  England. 

In  public  galleries  are  : 

Portraits,  Rotterdam  Museum ;  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 
"  Old  Woman  Spinning."     Museum,  Amsterdam. 
"  Bishop  reading  Book."      Museum,  Berlin. 
"  Asking  Blessing."     Louvre,  Paris. 

"  Cradle,"  "  Dutch  Housewife,"  "  Idle  Servant  Maid."     National 
Gallery,  London, 


DUTCH  PAINTING.  201 

Other  names  worthy  of  mention  among  the  "  Dutch  Little 
Masters"  are  Isaac  van  Ostade  (1621-1649),  Cornelius  Bega 
(1620-1664),  Pieter  van  Laer  (1613-1675?),  and  Henri  van 
der  Neer  (1643-1703). 

Adrian  van  der  Werff  (1659-1722)  stands  quite  apart  from 
his  contemporaries  in  Dutch  art ;  they  devoted  themselves 
tcrthe_raz/;  he,  to  the  ideal.  He  painted  Biblical  and  mytho- 
logical^ subjects,  in  which  his  figures,  artifically  grouped, 
very  cool  in  color,  and  finished  with  painful  smoothness, 
have  the  effect  of  ivory  or  porcelain  statues  rather  than 
living  beings. 

They,  however,  possess  a  certain  elegance  that  often  wins 
admiration,  and  it  is  said  that  the  artist  was  unable  to  fulfil 
all  the  commissions  that  poured  in  upon  him.  He  also 
received  the  honor  of  being  made  court  painter  to  Elector 
JohnJWilliam  of  the  Palatinate. 

Occasionally  he  painted  a  genre  picture  into  which  he  put 
a  little  realistic  feeling. 

He  is  best  represented  in  the  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich,  where 
are  thirty  of  his  pictures.  Several  are  in  Dresden  Gallery  and 
the  Louvre,  Paris. 

DUTCH  LANDSCAPE  PAINTERS. 

The  natural  and  developed  qualities  of  the  Dutch  School, 
when  applied  to  the  rendering  of  landscape,  give  this  branch 
of  art  a  distinctive  character,  and  we  find  here  a  most  inter- 
esting school  of  landscape  painters. 

Jan  van  Goyen_(i596-i656)  painted  mostly  canal,  river, 
and  ocean  scenes,  in  which  there  is  evidence  that  he  studied 
directly  from  nature. 

His  pictures  are  of  rather  a  monotonous  color  —  a  silvery 
gray  —  but  possess  real  atmosphere  and  daylight. 

He  is  said  to  have  painted  landscape  backgrounds  for  Jan 
Steen's  figures. 


202  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Examples  are  in  Amsterdam  Museum ;  Berlin  Museum  ;  Louvre, 
Paris  ;  National  Gallery,  London. 

Jan  Wynants  (1615  ?-i6y9  ?)  was  one  of  the  first  to  give 
evidence  in  his  pictures  of  a  real  love  for  natural  scenery. 
His  chief  aim  was  truthfulness  of  representation,  and  this  he 
carried  out  very  conscientiously. 

His  foregrounds  are  filled  with  different  kinds  of  vegeta- 
tion, most  accurately  copied.  Even  the  smallest  irregular- 
ities in  the  surface  of  the  ground  are  faithfully  rendered. 

His  middle-distance  foliage  is  well  managed. 

His  pictures  are  full  of  aerial  perspective.  He  was  least 
successful  in  color.  His  foliage  is  too  brightly  green  and 
too  bluish  in  distance.  His  latest  pictures  show  a  heavy 
brown  color.  Most  of  the  figures  and  animals  introduced 
were  painted  by  Adrian  van  der  Velde  and  Philip  Wouver- 
man. 

Examples  are  in  Amsterdam  ;  Dresden  Gallery  ;  Munich  (Old 
Pinacothek);  Louvre,  Paris;  and  National  Gallery,  London. 

Artus  van  der  Neer  (1603-1677)  excelled  in  sunset,  moon- 
light, and  winter  scenes,  in  which  the  masses  of  shadow  are 
wonderfully  well  treated. 

He  delighted  in  warm  color,  which  he  used  even  in  his 
moonlight  and  winter  pictures.  He  often  represented  canals 
with  towns  on  their  banks.  Other  artists  (often  Cuyp) 
painted  the  figures  and  animals. 

Examples  are  in  Amsterdam  Museum  ;  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich  ; 
Louvre,  Paris ;  National  Gallery,  London. 

Jacob  van  Ruisdael  (about  1625-1682)  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  among  Dutch  landscape  painters.  His  works 
show,  usually,  both  land  and  water  beneath  a  heavily  clouded 
sky.  They  are  full  of  strong,  dark  shadows  and  are  mourn- 
fully poetic  in  feeling. 


DUTCH  PAINTING.  203 

He  sometimes  represented  a  wild,  mountainous  country 
with  waterfalls  and  desolate  ruins ;  and  also  purely  coast 
and  sea  pieces,  where  the  water  is  always  agitated  by  storm. 
His  chiaroscuro  reminds  us  of  Rembrandt. 

His  coloring  is  cold  ;  his  early  pictures  show  a  very  care- 
ful rendering  of  detail ;  his  later  are  more  broadly  treated. 

He  seldom  introduced  any  figures  of  men  or  animals  ; 
when  he  did,  they  were  painted  by  other  artists,  often  Van 
der  Velde  and  Berchem. 

Examples  are  in  Museum,  The  Hague ;  Amsterdam  Museum ; 
Old  Pinacothek,  Munich ;  Berlin  Museum ;  Dresden  Gallery ; 
Louvre,  Paris ;  and  National  Gallery,  London. 

Meindert  Hobbema  (1638-1709)  owes  the  high  esteem  in 
which  his  pictures  are  now  held  to  the  appreciation  of  the 
English,  for  he  had  no  honor  in  his  own  country  for  more 
than  a  century  after  he  lived.  His  name  does  not  even 
appear  in  any  catalogue  of  Dutch  works  of  art  during  this 
time.  His  pictures  now  command  almost  fabulous  prices. 

The  range  of  his  subjects  is  somewhat  narrow ;  they  are 
quiet  village  streets,  bordered  by  trees,  with  a  footpath  lead- 
ing to  each  house  ;  woodlands,  and  meadows  with  grain 
fields,  sometimes  with  water  and  a  mill. 

His  representations  of  nature  are  more  truthful  than 
poetic,  are  full  of  sunshine,  and  most  of  them  are  charac- 
terized by  warm,  golden  color.  His  foliage  shows  a  very 
close  study  of  the  various  kinds  of  trees. 

His  technique  is  quite  free. 

Van  der  Velde,  Wouverman,  and  Berchem  painted  the 
animals  and  figures  in  his  pictures. 

Examples  are  in  Museums,  Rotterdam  and  Berlin ;  National 
Gallery,  London ;  and  many  private  galleries  in  England. 

Philip  Wouverman  (1619-1668)  painted  travelling  and 
hunting  scenes  and  cavalry  skirmishes,  in  which  landscape, 


204  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

horses,  and  figures  are  well  drawn  and  flooded  with  clear 
light  and  rich  transparent  color.  His  pictures  possess  a 
certain  spirit  and  action  that  are  admirable.  His  horses 
are  particularly  fine.  Popular  tradition  asserts  that  he  never 
painted  a  picture  without  introducing  a  white  horse ;  this  is 
by  no  means  true,  yet  it  is  a  common  mannerism. 

He  was  a  prolific  painter,  for  there  are  about  eight  hun- 
dred pictures  in  existence  which  are  attributed  to  him. 

Examples  are  in  Museums,  Amsterdam  and  The  Hague  ;  Cassel 
Gallery ;  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich ;  Dresden  Gallery ;  Louvre, 
Paris  ;  National  Gallery,  London  ;  Dulwich  Gallery,  England. 

Aelbert  Cuyp  (1620-1691)  was  one  of  the  ablest  Dutch 
landscape  and  cattle  painters,  and  was  also  a  good  portrait 
painter.  He  especially  excelled  in  his  atmospheres^  which 
are  true  to  the  time  of  day  represented.  His  yellow  sunlight 
effects  are  particularly  characteristic. 

His  pictures  show  less  force  and  individuality  of  repre- 
sentation than  Ruysdael's  and  Hobbema's. 

Examples  are  in  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich  ;  Dresden  Gallery ; 
Louvre,  Paris  ;  National  Gallery,  London ;  Bridgewater  and  Dul- 
wich Galleries,  England ;  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston. 

Paul  Potter  (1625-1654)  did  not  possess  much  grace  of 
invention  or  composition,  but  painted  landscapes  and  cattle 
as  found  in  nature  most,  accurately.  His  reputation  was  won 
chiefly  by  the  painting  of  "The  Young  Bull,"  now  in  the 
Museum  of  The  Hague.  It  is  a  large  picture,  containing 
several  animals  beside  its  chief  subject,  and  all  are  of  life 
size.  As  a  work  of  art  it  does  not  deserve  its  fame,  and  is 
decidedly  inferior  to  many  of  his  smaller  pictures. 

Examples  are  in  Museums,  Amsterdam  and  The  Hague  ;  Louvre, 
Paris ;  and  National  Gallery,  London. 

Adrian  van  der  Velde  (1635-1672)  possessed  considerable 
poetry  of  feeling  and  skill  in  composition.  He  painted 


DUTCH  PAINTING.  205 

groups  of  cattle  beside  pools  of  water,  with  masses  of  foli- 
age in  the  background  against  warm  skies  ;  also  landscapes 
with  groups  of  men,  horses,  and  dogs ;  and  occasionally 
a  pure  landscape,  which  is  usually  a  Scheveningen  coast 
scene.  His  color  is  warm  and  clear  and  his  chiaroscuro 
delicate. 

Examples  are  in  Museums,  Amsterdam,  The  Hague,  and  Ber 
lin ;  Cassel  Gallery  ;  Dresden  Gallery  ;  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich  ; 
Louvre,  Paris ;  National  Gallery,  London. 

Jan  Both  (1610-1650)  and  Nicolas  Berchem  (1620-1683) 
both  lived  for  a  time  in  Italy,  and  their  pictures  are  more 
Italian  than  Dutch.  They  are  half-ideal  Italian  landscapes, 
peopled  with  shepherds,  shepherdesses,  and  cattle. 

Examples  are  in  Museums,  Amsterdam  and  The  Hague ;  Old 
Pinacothek,  Munich ;  Dresden  Gallery ;  Louvre,  Paris ;  National 
Gallery,  London. 

Willem  van  der  Velde  the  Younger  (1633-1707)  is  the 
most  noted  painter  of  purely  marine  subjects  among  the 
Dutch.  He  painted  many  shore  and  harbor  scenes  and 
naval  battles.  His  pictures  are  noted  for  a  fine  knowledge 
of  skies,  aerial  perspective,  light,  and  ocean  effects.  He 
went  to  England  and  was  employed  by  Kings  Charles  II 
and  James  II  to  paint  naval  engagements  between  the 
English  and  the  Dutch. 

Examples  are  in  Museums,  Amsterdam,  The  Hague,  and  Ber- 
lin ;  Cassel  Gallery  ;  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich ;  Dresden  Gallery ; 
National  and  Bridgewater  Galleries,  England. 

Ludolf  Backhuysen  (1631-1708)  painted  the  same  kind  of 
subjects  as  Van  der  Velde,  but  is  inferior  in  color,  handling, 
and  composition.  He  was  particularly  fond  of  represent- 
ing the  ocean  when  it  is  tempestuous,  and  often  pictured 
grand  effects. 


206  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Examples  are  in  Museums,  Amsterdam,  The  Hague,  and  Ber- 
lin ;  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich ;  Dresden  Gallery ;  Vienna  Gallery  ; 
National  Gallery,  London. 

DUTCH  STILL-LIFE  *  AND  FLOWER  AND  FRUIT  PAINTERS. 

Among  these  are  several  names  worthy  of  mention.  Their 
works  are  marked  by  excessive  attention  to  detail.  Most 
important  are  Jan  David  de  Heem  (1603-1684),  Cornells  de 
Heem  (1623-1684?),  and  Rachel  Ruysch  (1664-1750),  flower 
and  fruit  painters;  Willem  van  Aelst  (1620-1679),  painter 
of  dead  birds  and  fruit;  Jan  van  Huysum  (1682-1749), 
flower  painter;  and  Willem  Kalf  (1630-1693),  painter  of 
vases,  kitchen  utensils,  and  vegetables. 

DUTCH  ARTISTS  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

Among   the   best   known    are   J.   Bosboom    (1817-1891), 

painter   of   cathedral   interiors;    Jozef  Israels   (1824 ), 

noted  for  genre  pictures  of  peasant  and  fisher  life,  full  of 
sentiment;   James   Maris    (1837—  — ),   Gabriel    and   Barent 

Koekkoek,  landscape  painters;   William  Maris   (1839 ) 

and  Anton  Mauve  (1838-1888),  cattle  and  landscape  painters. 

1  See  "  Definitions,"  p.  xii. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

GERMAN     PAINTING. 

MANUSCRIPT  illuminations  and  miniature  paintings  (ninth 
and  tenth  centuries)  may  be  seen  in  Munich  Library,  Impe- 
rial Library,  Paris,  and  British  Museum. 

Good  examples  of  the  earliest  German  wall  painting  in 
existence  are  in  Oberzell  (tenth  century)  ;  in  Lower  Church 
of  Schwarzrheindorf  (twelfth  century)  ;  in  Church  of  St. 
Michael,  Hildersheim ;  Brunswick  and  Bamberg  Cathedrals 
(thirteenth  century).  These  consist  of  simple  figures,  with 
crude  architectural  ornaments  on  a  solid  blue  ground. 

History  records  the  name  of  no  painter  of  influence  until 
the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

German  painting  varies  in  character  in  different  portions 
of  the  country,  some  parts  being  subject  to  Italian  influence, 
some  to  French,  and  some  to  the  early  Flemish. 

Characteristics. —  Religious  subjects  are  found  exclusively 
in  early  painting  and  indeed  in  the  great  mass  of  German 
painting  of  all  the  centuries. 

More  grace  and  refinement  are  found  in  those  sections 
that  lie  along  the  Rhine.  As  a  whole,  German  painting  is 
more  devoted  to  the  representation  of  character  than  of 
beauty.  The  portrait  dominates  the  ideal  picture.  It  is 
beyond  the  Flemish  in  perspective,  proportion,  and  truth- 
fulness of  representation ;  behind  it  in  its  indication  of 
outline  and  the  frequently  hatched  shadows  which  are  so 
injurious  to  artistic  effect. 

Details  are  carefully  noted  and  expressed.  The  influence 
of  wood  engraving  (first  employed  in  this  country),  practised 
by  many  artists,  is  seen  in  the  painting. 

207 


208 


THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


Meister  Wilhelm,  of  Cologne,  is  the  earliest  name  to  which 
existing  pictures  of  worth  are  attributed.     He  lived  during 

the  middle  and  latter 
part  of  the  fourteenth 
century. 

A  large  altar-piece  in 
a  chapel  in  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Cologne  is  sup- 
posed to  be  his  work, 
but  nothing  can  be  at- 
tributed to  him  with 
authority. 

Stephan  Lochner,  or 
Meister  Stephan  (— 
1451),  of  Constance, 
was  probably  a  pupil  of 
Meister  Wilhelm.  In 
his  pictures  we  find 
much  dignity  of  compo- 
sition, sentiment,  and 
refinement  of  expres- 
sion, with  considerable 
harshness  of  drawing 
and  exactness  of  detail.  The  figures  are  painted  on  gold 
backgrounds  and  wear  many  golden  ornaments. 

The  draperies  possess  a  Flemish  angularity.     Over  the 
foregrounds  are  scattered  flowers  and  tufts  of  grass. 

The  pictures  are  painted  in  tempera,  on  wood,  and  the 
coloring  is  harmonious  and  still  rich. 
Most  important  works : 

"  Madonna  with  Hedge  of  Roses,"  "  Dombild  "  (Cathedral  pic 
ture),  with  centre  representing  the  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi." 
Cologne  Cathedral. 

"  Presentation  in  the  Temple."     Museum,  Darmstadt. 


MBISTHR  WILHBLM.    MADONNA  OF  THE  PEA- 
BLOSSOM.    MUSEUM,  NUREMBERG. 


GERMAN  PAINTING.  209 


PICTURES  OF  UNKNOWN  AUTHORSHIP. 

There  are  several  other  famous  old  pictures,  which  are 
thought  to  have  been  painted  at  this  time,  whose  authors 
are  unknown.  One  is  called,  from  its  having  been  for  cen- 
turies in  the  possession  of  the  Lyversberg  family,  "  The 
Lyversberg  Passion."  It  is  a  series  of  eight  compositions 
picturing  Christ's  Passion,  painted  on  gold  grounds,  and  is 
now  in  the  Cologne  Museum.  The  unknown  painter  has 
received  the  name,  "  The  Master  of  the  Lyversberg  Passion." 

Others  are  the  so-called  "  Werden  Pictures,"  in  the  Abbey 
of  Werden,  near  Diisseldorf. 


SCHOOLS   OF   PAINTING. 

There  have  been  three  important  schools,  the  limits  of 
which  are  not  very  definitely  fixed:  the  Franconian,  the 
Swabian,  and  the  Saxon. 

FRANCONIAN  SCHOOL. 

Michael  Wolgemuth  (1434-1519)  had  quite  a  large  school 
in  Nuremberg ;  none  of  his  pupils  became  famous  save 
Albert  Diirer.  He  was  wood  engraver  as  well  as  painter, 
and  his  engravings  are  more  important  than  his  pictures. 
The  latter  are  mostly  altar-pieces,  in  which  the  figures  are 
long,  lank,  and  stiff,  and  in  awkward  positions.  Some  of 
his  single  figures  possess  a  certain  pleasing  dignity. 

Representative  works : 

Series  of  four  pictures  representing  scenes  from  the  Passion  of 

our  Lord.     Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 
Several  panels,   each   containing  the  life-sized  figure  of  a  saint 

(parts  of  an  altar-piece).     Museum,  Nuremberg. 


210 


THE    WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


Albert  Diirer  (1471-1528),  born  in  Nuremberg,  is  the  most 
famous  painter  of  Germany.    Early  in  his  career  he  went  to 


DURER.    PORTRAIT  OF  JEROME  HOLZSCHUHER.    BERLIN  MUSEUM. 


Italy,  where  he  spent  considerable  time,  especially  in  Venice, 
where  he  formed  an  intimacy  with  Giovanni  Bellini.  Here 
he  was  warmly  appreciated.  Titian  tried  to  imitate  hinLJn 
some  respects ;  Raphael  became  his__devoted  admirer,  and 


GERMAN  PAINTING.  211 

is  said  to  have  adorned  his  studio  with  what  drawings  by  the 
German  artist  he  could  obtain.  He  afterward  sent  several 
of  his  own  drawings  to  Diirer  "  to  show  him  his  hand,"  as 
the  accompanying  letter  quaintly  stated.  These  are  now  in 
Vienna.  In  return,  Diirer  sent  him  a  life-size  portrait  of 
himself,  painted  by  his  own  hand. 

Diirer's  work  shows  that  he  was  influenced  comparatively 
little  by  Italian  methods.  He  was  a  true  German,  and 
was  a  thinker  who  painted,  instead  of  a  painter  who 
thought. 

He  wrote  many  books,  some  of  which  deal  with  theoretical 
subjects,  such  as  a  discussion  concerning  subtile  questions 
of  beauty  ;  others  treat  of  the  proportions  of  the  human 
body,  etc. 

His  subjects  are  chiefly  religious,  portrait,  and  imagina- 
tive. His  wood  engravings  are  very  noted  and  numerous. 
He  is  also  the  reputed  inventor  of  etching  and  of  printing 
woodcuts  in  two  colors. 

Characteristics.  —  A  powerful  imagination,  great  originality, 
and  endless  invention.  A  feeling  for  simple  grace  and  ten- 
derness, for  the  solemn  and  sublime,  and  also  a  love  for  the 
mysterious.  The  latter  is  seen  in  his  engravings  more  than  in 
his  paintings.  (Examples :  "  Melancholia,"  "  Knight,  Death, 
and  the  Devil."  ) 

His  composition  is  often  too  crowded  for  simplicity  and 
breadth. 

His  drawing,  especially  in  his  later  years,  is  full  of  life  and 
character,  although  there  is  much  evidence  that  he  always 
had  to  strive  against  a  tendency  toward  stiff,  hard  lines  and 
angular  figures  which  strongly  mark  his  early  work. 

He  elaborated  details,  especially  drapery  and  hair.  His 
portraits  are  marvels  of  minute  workmanship. 

He  usually  failed  to  produce  beauty,  and  always  when  he 
attempted  a  nude  figure. 


212  .   THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

His  draperies  possess  a  mannerism  in  a  certain  sharpness 
and  angularity  of  folds,  though  the  large  masses  are  often 
quiet  and  beautiful. 

Hjs  coloring  varies,  being,  in  some  pictures,  rich  and  even 
brilliant,  while  in  others  it  is  sadly  wanting  in  fulness  and 
transparence. 

His  chiaroscuro  is  peculiar,  there  being  so  little  shade. 
His  gradations  seem  to  be  those  of  greater  and  less  bril- 
liance instead  of  light  and  dark. 

His  later  works  are  marked  by  his  best  technical  treat- 
ment. In  these  we  find  more  breadth,  a  better  handling 
and  color. 

Most  important  works  : 

"Crucifixion."     Gallery,  Dresden. 

"  Four  Pillars  of  the  Church,"  sometimes  called  "  Four  Tempera- 
ments." Old  Pinacothek,  Munich.  This  has  been  called  the 
first  Protestant  picture.  Diirer  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
Martin  Luther,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  influenced  by 
him  to  renounce  Catholicism.  This  picture  (composed  of  two 
panels)  urges  the  personal  study  of  the  Word  of  God. 

"  Burial  of  the  Saviour,"  "  Nativity,"  portraits  of  Michael  Wol- 
gemuth  and  Diirer.  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 

"  Adoration  of  the  Trinity,"  portraits.     Belvidere  Gallery,  Vienna. 

Portraits.     Museum,  Berlin. 

"  Adoration  of  the  Magi."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

"Adam  and  Eve."     Gallery,  Madrid. 

Hans  von  Kulmbach,  or  Hans  Wagner  (—  -  1540),  was  one 
of  Diirer's  pupils,  and  painted  some  very  good  pictures. 
While  by  no  means  equal  to  his  master  in  fertility  and  origi- 
nality of  invention,  he  possessed  a  greater  feeling  for  the 
beautiful.  He  was  for  some  years  assistant  in  Diirer's  studio. 

Good  examples,  especially  the  panels  containing  figures  of 
saints,  are  in  the  Nuremberg  Museum,  in  the  Old  Pinacothek, 
Munich,  and  Berlin  Museum. 


GERMAN  PAINTING.  213 

Hans  Schauffelin  ( —  —  1549)  imitated  very  closely  in  his 
best  works  Diirer's  manner  of  painting.  He,  however,  pro- 
duced many  inferior  pictures. 

Best  examples  are  :  "  St.  Bridget "  and  "  Mocking  of  Christ  "  in 
Nuremberg  Museum;  altar-piece  in  church  at  Nordlingen  ; 
and  "Scenes  from  the  Life  of  Christ,"  Old  Pinacothek, 
Munich. 

Hans  Baldung,  called  Grien  (1470-1546  ?),  was  very 
strongly  influenced  by  Diirer  while  retaining  much  native 
originality.  His  work  is  marked  by  a  peculiar  roundness  of 
the  heads,  and  his  drawing  is  often  exaggerated,  but  the 
expressions  of  some  of  his  faces  are  particularly  charming. 

He  possessed  much  imagination,  and  freely  introduced 
the  fantastic  into  his  pictures.  He  also  painted  portraits 
and  made  designs  for  woodcuts. 

Representative  works  : 

Altar-piece.     Freiburg  Cathedral. 

Portraits.     Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 

"  Adoration  of  the  Kings."     Berlin  Museum. 

A  good  example  of  his  fantastic  works  is  in  the  Basle  Museum. 

Albert  Altdorfer  (about  1488-1538)  is  a  prominent  painter 
of  this  school  who  has  been  called  a  pupil  of  Diirer,  but 
confirmation  of  this  is  wanting.  He  is  also  distinguished 
as  an  engraver  on  both  copper  and  wood. 

A  great  love  for  the  fantastic  and  the  fabulous  runs 
through  his  work. 

His  feeling  is  poetic,  but  his  expression  is  stiff  and  labored 
after  the  manner  of  his  time  and  place,  yet  his  pictures  pos- 
sess a  good  deal  of  charm.  His  coloring  is  excellent. 

He  seldom  painted  other  than  very  small  figures. 

From  the  excellence  of  his  landscapes  he  has  been  called 
the  creator  of  German  landscape  painting.  In  later  life  he 


214  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

was  influenced  by  Italian  methods.  He  is  one  of  the  best 
of  the  "German  Little  Masters,"  so  called  from  the  small- 
ness  of  their  prints  and  cuts. 

Best  examples  :  Several  pictures  in  Nuremberg  Museum. 

"Victory  of  Alexander  the  Great."  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 
This  picture  was  taken  by  the  French  from  the  Gallery  of 
Schleissheim  to  Paris,  where  Emperor  Napoleon  was  so 
pleased  with  it  that  he  had  it  hung  in  his  palace  of  St. 
Cloud,  where  it  remained  until  1825,  when  it  was  returned 
with  the  other  foreign  pictures  that  had  been  gathered  in 
the  Louvre  by  the  victorious  French. 

Altar-piece.     Gallery,  Augsburg. 

"  St.  Francis  and  St.  Jerome."     Berlin  Museum. 

GERMAN  LITTLE  MASTERS. 

Among  other  followers  of  Diirer,  who  are  also  especially 
known  as  engravers  and  have  received  the  name  of  German 
Little  Masters,  perhaps  the  most  important  are  :  Sebald  Beham 
(1500-1550),  a  painter  of  genius,  who  produced  many  coarse, 
humorous  pictures  ;  Barthel  Beham  (1502-1540),  influenced 
by  Italian  methods  ;  and  George  Pencz  (1500-1550),  influ- 
enced first  by  Diirer,  afterward  by  Italian  masters,  par- 
ticularly Raphael. 

SAXON  SCHOOL. 

Mathias  Griinewald  (was  painting  1518 ),  of  Aschaffen- 

burg,  is  the  subject  of  many  doubtful  opinions  among  art 
historians.  He  is  believed  by  several  authorities  to  have 
been  the  master  of  Lucas  Cranach  the  Elder,  who  is  the 
most  important  artist  in  this  division  of  the  German 
School. 

An  altar-piece  attributed  to  him  is  in  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 
An  altar-piece  in  Gallery,  Colmar,  is  a  disputed  work. 


GERMAN  PAINTING.  215 

Lucas  Cranach  the  Elder  (1472-1553),  born  at  Cranach,  in 
Franconia,  but  settled  in  Saxony,  has  a  widespread  repu- 
tation, more  from  the  number,  interesting  character,  and 
eccentricity  of  his  work  than  for  its  intrinsic  art  merit.  He 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Martin  Luther,  and  one  of  the 
earliest  Protestant  painters. 

Characteristics.  —  His  favorite  subjects  are  religious  and 
mythological,  together  with  realistic  scenes,  such  as  hunts 
of  wild  animals.  He  also  painted  portraits.  His  pictures 
of  Christ  are  thoroughly  Protestant,  and  generally  treat  of 
the  fall  and  redemption  of  mankind.  He  was  particularly 
successful  in  subjects  containing  little  children.  He  was 
fond  of  introducing  the  nude  figure. 

His  power  of  invention  was  remarkable.  His  pictures 
are  often  humorous  and  sometimes  seem  to  be  parodies  of 
great  subjects  ;  this  is  especially  true  of  mythological  scenes. 

A  spirit  of  cheerfulness  breathes  through  most  of  his  works. 

His  composition  is  Gothic  in  style  ;  his  drawing  is  rather 
weak. 

His  color  is  clear  and  varies,  being  most  brilliant  in  his 
early  pictures.  The  flesh  tints  in  these  are  dainty,  like 
those  of  infants'  flesh. 

Slight  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  chiaroscuro  and  aerial 
perspective  is  shown. 

Detail  is  most  laboriously  expressed. 

Representative  works : 

"  Crucifixion."  Church,  Weimar.  In  this  picture  are  portraits  of 
Martin  Luther  and  the  artist,  the  latter  being  struck  by  a 
stream  of  blood  flowing  from  the  pierced  side  of  the  Saviour. 

"Fall  and  Redemption  of  Man."     Ducal  Gallery,  Gotha. 

"  Samson  and  Delilah."     Gallery,  Augsburg. 

"  Ecce  Homo  "  and  several  other  pictures.     Dresden  Gallery. 

Several  pictures  (including  portraits  of  Martin  Luther  and  Melanc- 
thon).  Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 


216  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Mythological  pictures,  portraits,  and  the  humorous  "  Fountain  of 

Youth."     Berlin  Museum. 

"  Adam  "  and  "  Eve."     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
Portrait  of  young  lady.     National  Gallery,  London. 

Lucas  Cranach  the  Younger  (1515-1586)  followed  the  style 
of  his  father,  to  whom  many  of  his  pictures  have  been 
attributed.  His  painting  possesses  less  strength  and  indi- 
viduality, a  little  more  grace,  and  is  warmer  in  color. 

Representative  works  : 

"  Crucifixion  "  (with  family  of  donor),  "  Nativity."     Stadtkirche, 

Wittenberg. 
"  John  the  Baptist "  (attributed  to  his  father).     Old  Pinacothek, 

Munich. 
Several  pictures,  many  of  which  were  long  attributed  to  his  father. 

Dresden  Gallery. 

SWABIAN  SCHOOL. 

Martin  Schongauer  (Martin  Schon,  about  1445-1488)  is 
an  acknowledged  leader  of  this  school.  Little,  however, 
is  known  of  him,  and  the  works  attributed  to  him  have  no 
authority  save  that  of  tradition. 

These  bear  internal  evidence  that  their  author  was  a  pupil 
or  follower  of  Rogier  van  der  Weyden  (Flemish  School). 
They  are  decidedly  Flemish  in  coloring,  and  have  a  certain 
refinement  of  spiritual  sentiment,  but  are  German  in  type. 
They  are  also  thoroughly  German  in  their  treatment  of  weird 
and  fantastic  subjects. 

The  figures  are  marked  by  very  voluminous  draperies 
twisted  into  innumerable  angular  folds. 

The  type  of  head  is  usually  the  same,  oval,  with  broad, 
rounded  forehead  and  rather  weak  chin. 

The  hands  are  very  meagre  and  devoid  of  all  appearance 
of  life. 


GERMAN  PAINTING.  217 

Representative  works  attributed  to  Schongauer : 

"  Virgin  and  Child."     St.  Martin's,  Colmar. 

Several  pictures.     Colmar  Museum. 

"  Nativity."     Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 

"  Death  of  the  Virgin."     National  Gallery,  London. 

Characteristic  engravings  are  in  British  Museum,  London. 

Frederick  Herlen  (was  painting  1450)  and  Bartholomew 
Zeitblom  (was  painting  1480-1517)  were  followers  of  Martin 
Schongauer's  style  of  painting  and  exercised  considerable 
influence  over  this  school.  By  means  of  this  the  succeeding 
art  bears  a  distinct  resemblance  to  that  of  the  early  Flemish 
in  its  realistic  conceptions  and  warm,  softly  blended  color. 
It  is  not  so  much  given  to  elaboration  of  detail  and  gains  in 
spiritual  beauty. 

Representative  works  : 

Herlen.  —  Altar-pieces,     and     "  Virgin     and     Child."       Church, 

Nordlingen. 

Zeitblom.  —  Several  pictures.     Stuttgart  Gallery. 
"St.  Margaret,"  "St.  Ursula,"  "  St.  Bridget."     Old  Pinacothek, 

Munich. 

Portion  of  altar-piece.     Berlin  Museum. 
Several  pictures.     Nuremberg  Museum. 

Hans  Holbein  the  Elder  (about  1460-1524),  of  Augsburg, 
belonged  to  a  family  famous  for  its  painters,  his  father  as 
well  as  his  son  having  won  reputation  in  the  art.  He  fol-' 
lowed  the  styles  of  Schongauer  and  Rogier  van  der  Weyden. 
He  has  suffered  much  from  having  been  the  father  of  a 
famous  son,  since  many  of  his  works  have,  until  very  lately, 
been  considered  to  be  youthful  paintings  of  Hans  Holbein 
the  Younger. 

Characteristics.  —  Subjects  wholly  religious.  Earlier  paint- 
ings are  marked  by  the  slender  figures,  quaintly  stiff  atti- 
tudes, gentle  conventional  faces,  and  simple  long  garments 
of  the  early  Flemish  School. 


218  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Later  ones  possess  much  more  of  the  portrait-like  charac- 
ter natural  to  German  painting,  and  the  latest  are  touched 
by  the  influence  of  Italian  painting. 

His  last  works  are  his  best.  He  was  very  fond  of  archi- 
tectural details  ;  hence  we  find  many  of  these  in  the  back- 
grounds of  his  pictures. 

Representative  works: 

Wings  of  altar-piece.     Cathedral,  Augsburg. 

Several  pictures.     Gallery,  Augsburg. 

"Virgin  and  Child  with  Two  Angels."     Nuremberg  Museum. 

Several  parts  of  altar-piece.     Staedel  Museum,  Frankfort. 

"  Crucifixion,"  "  Descent  from  Cross,"  "  Entombment,"  and  other 

pictures.     Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 
Many  sketches.     Berlin  Museum. 

Hans  Burgkmair  (1473-1531),  of  Augsburg,  son  of  Thomas 
Burgkmair,  also  artist,  exerted  considerable  influence.  He 
was  less  affected  by  early  Flemish  painting,  and  more  by 
that  of  Albert  Diirer  than  were  his  contemporaries,  hence 
he  was  more  peculiarly  German.  His  chief  aim  seems  to 
have  been  the  portrayal  of  realism. 

His  subjects  are  religious  and  portrait.  His  compo- 
sitions are  devoid  of  grace  and  his  drawing  of  the  figure 
stiff  and  not  always  correct.  Some  of  his  work  is  harsh  and 
possesses  a  mediaeval  character. 

His  ideal  heads  are  very  portrait-like. 

He  represented  architecture  in  backgrounds  and  used 
much  gold  in  ornamentation. 

When  landscape  is  introduced,  it  is  treated  with  elaborate 
detail  and  evinces  a  careful  study  of  nature. 

He  was  also  a  designer  for  wood  engravings. 

Representative  works  : 

Several  pictures  in  Gallery,  Augsburg. 

"  Virgin  and  Child."     Nuremberg  Museum. 


GERMAN  PAINTING.  219 

Altar-piece,  "  Martyrdom  of  St.  Ursula."     Gallery,  Dresden. 

"  St.  John  on  Patmos,"  "  Queen  Esther  before  Ahasuerus,"  and 

other  pictures.     Old  Pinacothek,  Munich. 
Portraits.     Belvidere  Gallery,  Vienna. 


Holbein  the  Younger  (1497-1543),  of  Augsburg,  son 
of  Hans  Holbein  the  Elder,  is  one  of  the  greatest  of  German 


HANS  HOLBEIN.    PORTRAIT  OF  A  MAN.    OLD  PINACOTHBK,  MUNICH. 


painters.  While  Albert  Diirer  is  the  great  painter  of  the 
early  period  of  German  art,  Holbein,  though  there  is  so 
little  real  difference  between  them  in  point  of  time,  sjeejns 
to  belong  to  a  much  later  and  fuller  age.  He  travelled  widely 
in  his  own  country,  in  the  Netherlands,  and  in  Italy,  and 
spent  his  last  years  as  court  painter  in  England. 


220  THE    WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Unlike  his  German  contemporaries,  he  painted  in  fresco 
as  well  as  in  oils,  and  decorated  a  house  in  Lucerne  ("  the 
house  of  the  bailiff"),  within  and  without,  with  large  fres- 
coes representing  a  great  variety  of  scenes.  .  Unfortunately, 
this  house  is  no  longer  in  existence. 

He  also  painted  frescoes  in  the  Town  Hall  of  Basle,  a 
few  relics  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  museum  of  that 
city. 

He  is  noted  for  his  designs  for  wood  engraving,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  a  series  of  about  fifty  compositions, 
called  the  "  Dance  of  Death."  Another  series  of  about 
ninety  subjects  represents  Old  Testament  scenes. 

Characteristics.  —  Although  a  perfect  master  of  realism, 
yet  he  was  much  affected  both  in  methods  of  conception 
and  representation  by  Italian  painting  ;  therefore  his  work  is 
marked  by  a  feeling  for  grace  and  beauty. 

His  subjects  are  mostly  religious  and  portrait ;  his  compo- 
sition is  broad,  striking,  and  often  dramatic  ;  sometimes  it  is 
inclined  a  little  toward  overcrowding. 

His  religious  pictures  are  behind  those  of  Diirer  in  rever- 
ential feeling,  but  the  drawing  and  color  are  far  better. 

His  figures  are  full  and  dignified,  well  drawn  and 
modelled. 

His  ideal  heads  have  a  portrait-like  character ;  his  por- 
traits are  wonderfully  realistic  and  fine.  The  accessories  of 
both  are  always  careful  studies  from  real  life. 

His  color,  clear  and  transparent,  is  used  rather  thinly,  and 
the  careful  outline  is  sometimes  seen  through  it. 

His  portraits  usually  have  green  backgrounds ;  if  very 
small,  deep  blue  is  often  used. 

He  is  famous  for  what  has  been  called  "  the  inimitable 
bloom  "  of  his  paintings,  which  was  given  by  infinite  touch- 
ings  and  retouchings  until  not  a  stroke  of  the  brush  is 
visible. 


GERMAN  PAINTING.  221 

Most  important  works : 

"  Last  Supper."     Gallery,  Basle. 

"  Madonna  of  the  Burgomaster  Meyer  Family."  Museum,  Darm- 
stadt (a  copy  is  in  Gallery,  Dresden).  This  picture  was 
painted  by  order  of  Burgomaster  Meyer  of  Basle  (and  in 
the  belief  of  many  critics),  as  a  thank-offering  for  the  recovery 
of  a  child  from  illness.  In  it  the  whole  family,  including  the 
first  wife,  dead  many  years,  is  represented  kneeling  at  the 
feet  of  the  Madonna. 

A  singular  controversy  waged  for  many  years  regarding  the  authenticity  of 
the  two  pictures  in  Darmstadt  and  Dresden.  This  was  finally  settled  in  1872, 
when  both  were  exhibited  at  Dresden,  together  with  a  number  of  the  best  of 
Holbein's  acknowledged  works.  It  was  decided  by  competent  critics  that  the 
Darmstadt  "  Madonna  "  is  executed  in  Holbein's  own  individual  manner,  while 
that  in  the  Dresden  Gallery  betrays  the  style  of  some  copyist  living  at  the  close 
of  the  sixteenth  century. 

"  Virgin  and  Child  with  Saints."     Gallery,  Soleure. 

Representative  portraits  are  in  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence ;  Dresden, 
Cassel,  Carlsruhe,  and  Vienna  Galleries  ;  Berlin  Museum  ; 
Louvre,  Paris  ;  National  Gallery,  London ;  and  Windsor 
Castle,  England.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  .are 
"  Morett,  the  Jeweler  of  Henry  VIII,"  Dresden  Gallery, 
which  for  many  years  was  attributed  to  Leonardo  da  Vinci ; 
"  George  Gysen,"  Berlin  Museum ;  "  Nicholas  Kratzer," 
"  Anne  of  Cleves,"  "  Sir  Thomas  More,"  and  "  Sir  Richard 
Southwell,"  Louvre,  Paris ;  and  members  of  Court  of  Henry 
VIII,  Windsor  Castle,  England. 

Martin  Schaffner  (was  painting  1499-1535),  of  Ulm,  was  a 
realistic  painter  whose  pictures  are  marked  by  much  beauty 
and  cheerfulness  of  expression.  His  composition  is  very 
graceful,  and  his  heads  are  particularly  well  drawn,  but  the 
flesh  tones  are  marred  by  a  disagreeable  grayish  color. 

Representative  works  : 

Altar-piece.     Cathedral,  Ulm. 

Portraits  and  other  pictures.  Museum.  Nuremberg.  Old  Pinaco- 
thek,  Munich. 


222  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

DECADENCE. 

The  decadence  of  early  German  painting  is  seen  in  the 
works  of  Christopher  Schwartz  (about  1550-1597)  and  Johann 
Rothenhammer  (1564-1623),  who  were  chiefly  influenced  by 
the  works  of  Tintoretto  (Venetian  School);  Adam  Elzheimer, 
sometimes  called  Adam  of  Frankfort  (1574  ?  -1620),  painter 
of  small  landscapes,  with  figures  representing  Bible  and 
mythological  characters,  and  also  of  night  pieces  lighted  by 
the  moon  or  by  artificial  light ;  Balthasar  Denner  (1685-1749), 
whose  portraits  show  an  extraordinary  realism,  even  the 
peculiarities  of  the  skin  being  represented,  and  whose  fruit 
and  flower  pieces  are  marked  by  most  excessive  finish  ; 
Raphael  Mengs  (1728-1772  ?),  who  was  too  blindly  devoted  to 
the  classic  antique  to  produce  works  of  the  highest  class, 
and  who  so  closely  imitated  the  qualities  of  different  mas- 
ters that  his  pictures  are  devoid  of  the  slightest  strength  of 
individuality  ;  Maria  Angelica  Kauffmann  (1741-1807),  a  fol- 
lower of  Italian  methods,  whose  graceful  forms  and  pretty 
faces,  warm  coloring,  and  agreeable  style  of  painting  have 
gained  considerable  popularity ;  and  Christian  Dietrich  (1712- 
1774),  who  was  simply  an  imitator  of  greater  artists. 

GERMAN  PAINTING  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 
(PRJE-RAPHAELITISM). 

The  art  revival  of  this  century  began  with  an  interesting 
group  of  painters  who  met  togetherjr^Rome  in_r8ro.  They 
were  four  young  Germans  full  of  enthusiasm  —  Peter  von 
Cornelius  of  Diisseldorf  (1783-1867),  Friedrich  Overbeck  of 
Lubeck  (1789-1869),  Philip  Veit  of  Frankforl  (1793-1877), 
and  Wilhelm  von  Schadow  of  Berlin  (1789-1862). 

Having  noted  thUtTtalian  art  began  to  decline  as  soon  as 
the  full  expression  of  beauty  of  the  High  Renaissance  had 


GERMAN  PAINTING.  223 

come,  they  promised  themselves  and  each  other  that  they 
would  put  aside  all  ideas  of  mere  beauty,  all  conventional 
Inethods  of  thought  and  study  ;  that  they  would  resolutely 
shun  all  tricks  of  color  and  handling,  and  would  simplyjtry 
to  fill  their  hearts  with  the  old  fourteenth-century  faith  and 
devotion,  believing  that  thus  they  might  aid  in  restoring  a 
growing  art.  Thus  they  earned  the  name  of  Frae-Raphaeliteg. 
They  called  themselves  "  The  Brethren." 

Overbeck  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  Rome  and  was 
made  president  of  St.  Luke's  Academy  of  Art  in  that  city. 

His  works  may  be  studied  in  Villa  Massimo,  Rome;  Santa 
Maria  degli  Angeli,  Assisi ;  Staedel  Museum,  Frankfort;  and 
New  Pinacothek,  Munich. 

The  phase  of  art  seen  in  Overbeck's  work  and  practised 
by  these  young  artists  while  in  Rome  had  not  much  influ- 
ence ;  out  of  their  work  and  spirit,  however,  has  grown  the 
worthy  German  religious  painting  of  to-day. 

This  may  be  divided  into  three  schools,  one  having  its 
seat  at  Munich,  one  at  Dusseldorf,  and  the  third  at  Berlin. 

MUNICH  SCHOOL. 

Peter  TOP  Cornplfaa  was  called  from  Rome  to  Dusseldorf 
in  1820  to  direct  its  art  academy,  and  soon  afterward  was 
summoned  to  Munich  (thus  becoming  founder  of  theMunich 
School)  to  decorate  its  new  public  buildings,  the  Glyptothek. 

New  IPinacothek,  etc.  He  painted  classic^ajitio^uej his- 

tQrical,  and  religious  pictures.  His  paintings  are  colossal 
and  possess  a  certain  greatness  of  invention  and  composi- 
tion that  is  impressive.  They  appeal  To  the  intellect  rather 
than  to  the  heart.  His  color  I^coTcT  and  monotonous. 

Most  important  works  : 

FRESCOES.     Hall  of  the  Gods  and  Hall  of  Heroes.     Glyptothek, 
Munich. 


224  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

FRESCOES.     "  History  of  Christian  Painting."     Loggia  of  New 

Pinacothek,  Munich. 

FRESCOES.     Biblical  Scenes.     Ludwig-Kirche,  Munich. 
FRESCOES.     Royal  Cemetery,  Berlin. 
FRESCOES.     Casa  Zuccaro  and  Casa  Bartholdi,  Rome. 

Among  the  artists  of  this  school  are  Wilhelm  von  Kaulbach 
(1805-1874),  whojDainted  the  vast  frescoes  .OIL,  the  staircase 
walls  of  the  Berlin  Museum,  which  picture  "  Destruction,  of 
Jerusalem,"  "Battle  of  the  Huns,"  "Crusaders,"  etc.,  and 
who  has  given  to  the  world  so  many  conceptions  of  Shakes- 
peare's and  Goethe's  heroines ;  Carl  Theodor  von  Piloty  (1826- 
1886),  a  broad  dramatic  painter,  full_pf jrealism,  but_tem- 
pered  by  Italian  study,  in  whose  work  and  influence  we  see 
a  naturajjreaction  from  the  "  Prae-Raphaelite  "  spirit.  Among 
his  well-known  pictures  are  "Nero  among  the  Ruins  of 
Rome  "  and  "  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  receiving  Sentence  of 

Death."  Franz  von  Defregger  (1835 )  and  C.  von  Boden- 

hausen,  whose  Madonnas  are  widely  reproduced ;  Gabriel  Max 

(1840 ),  painter  of  Madonnas,  "Virgin  Martyr  in  the 

Arena,"  "Lion's  Bride";  Franz  Lenbach  (d.  1904),  portrait 
painter;  and  B.  Plockhorst  (1825—  — ),  who  has  painted 
"  St.  John  and  Mary,  Mother  of  Christ,"  "  Christ  the  Con- 
soler," "  Flight  into  Egypt,"  and  many  other  pictures. 

There  are  many  young  artists  of  this  school. 

4 
DUSSELDORF    SCHOOL. 

When  Cornelius  was  called  to  Munich,  Wilhelm  von  Schadow 
took  his  place  in  Diisseldorf.  This  school  is  marked  by  re- 
finement and  sentiment,  a  careful  study  of  nature  and  delicate 
harmonious  coloring.  Among  its  followers  are  Carl  Lessing, 
the  modern  painter  of  Luther  and  the  Reformation ;  Heinrich 

Hofmann  (1824 ),  whose  "Boy-Christ  in  the  Temple," 

"Christ    and    the    Rich   Young   Ruler,"  etc.,  are  so  well 


GERMAN  PAINTING.  225 

known  ;  Julius  W.  L.  Rotermund  (1826-1859),  whose  "Dead 
Christ,"  finished  by  Bendemann,  is  justly  famous ;  CarlMuller 


HOFMANN.    CHRIST  AND  THE  YOUNT,  RULER. 

(1839  ),  well  known  by  his  "Annunciation  "  and  "  Holy 

Family";  Weber,  painter  of  forests  ;  Oswald  Achenbach,  land- 
scape and  marine  painter,  and  many  others. 

BERLIN  SCHOOL. 

This  is  of  a  later  growth  than  the  others,  and  has  grown 
out  of  the  influence  of  both.  Its  work  may  be  studied  in  the 
paintings  of  Ludwig  Knaus  (1829  —  — ),  noted  for  his  strong 
genre  pictures ;  Adolph  Menzel,  who  has  represented  scenes 
in  the  life  of  Frederick  the  Great ;  Carl  Schorn  and  Julius 
Schrader,  historical  painters  ;  Edward  and  Paul  Meyerheim,  and 
Carl  Becker,  genre  painters  ;  Gustav  Richter,  whose  oriental 


226  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

scenes  and  portraits  (conspicuous  among  which  is  that  of 
Queen  Louise  of  Prussia)  are  well  known,  and  Alfred  Rethel, 
a  painter  of  historic  and  ideal  pictures,  the  latter  of  which 
are  weird  and  mystic. 

Austrian  painting  of  to-day,  so  German  in  character,  is 
represented  by  Hans  Makart  (1840-1884),  a  strong  and  most 
eccentric  painter,  full  of  invention,  wanting  in  taste  and  in 
correctness  of  form,  and  most  lavish  in  color ;  Peter  Krafft 
and  Carl  Rahl,  historical  painters  ;  Waldmuller,  painter  of 
peasant  life;  and  Michael  Munkacsy  (1846-1900),  who  has 
painted  "  Christ  before  Pilate,"  "  Christ  on  Calvary,"  "  Mil- 
ton dictating  to  his  Daughters,"  etc. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

ENGLISH    PAINTING. 

THE  art  of  painting  was  not  practised  until  late  in  England. 
There  are  a  few  remains  of  mural  decorations  in  churches  in 
various  parts  of  the  country  and  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
which  must  have  been  executed  prior  to  the  thirteenth  or 
fourteenth  century,  but  no  English  painters  of  much  note 
appeared  previous  to  the  eighteenth  century.  Before  this 
time  all  important  works  were  entrusted  to  foreigners,  notably 
those  of  the  German,  Flemish,  and  Dutch  schools;  therefore, 
the  impress  of  these  schools  upon  the  English  is  marked. 
CiHolbein_(German  School)  —  Mabuse,  Moro,  Rubens.  Van 
^JDyck  (Flemish),  Sir  Peter  Lely,  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  portrait 
painters — and  the  two  Van  de  Veldes,  marine  painters 
(Dutch),  were  employed  by  the  reigning  sovereigns  and  their 
courts.  Some  of  these  painters  performed  their  most  impor- 
tant work  in  England. 

Characteristics.  —  Portrait  painting  is  a  marked  feature,  in 
which  the  influence  of  Van  Dyck  especially  is  seen  until  the 
time  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  through  whom  Italian  influence 
obtains  power.  Genre  painting  is  prominent,  also  landscape, 
in  which  much  realism  and  study  of  nature  is  seen.  Color 
and  effect  are  ends  sought  for. 

Sir  James  Thornhill  (1676-1734)  was  the  first  native  artist 
who  received  important  commissions  for  public  work. 

His  wall  paintings  are  not  very  interesting  or  of  much 
worth  to  the  art  world. 

These  may  be  seen  in  Hampton  Court  Palace,  Greenwich  Hos- 
pital, and  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London. 

227 


WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

.William  Hogarth  (1697-1764),  born  in  London,  and  a  son- 
in-law  of  Sir  James  Thornhill,  is  the  first  really  great  name. 
He  belongs  to  the  province  of  the  higher  genre,  was  author 
as  well  as  painter,  and  had  the  same  aim  in  both  his  painting 
and  writing.  He  was  a  most  clever  satirist,  and  strove  to 
work  reform  by  holding  up  to  ridicule  the  popular  vices  of 
his  day. 

His  aim  was  to  make  paintings  similar  to  stage  representa- 
tions, and  he  succeeded  admirably. 

In  composition  his  pictures  are  thoroughly  and  exquisitely 
dramatic,  without  in  the  least  degenerating  into  the  theatrical. 

Hte  color,  as  a  general  thing,  is  poor. 

Many  of  his  pictures  have  been  engraved. 

Most  important  works  : 

Series  of  pictures,  "  The  Harlot's  Progress,"  "  The  Rake's  Prog- 
ress," "  Marriage  a  la  Mode."     National  Gallery,  London.  ^ 

1  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  (1723-1792),  born  in  Plympton,  Devon- 
s'hire,  holds  high  rank,  especially  in  portrait.  He  at  first  was 
influenced  by  Van  Dyck's  work.  Afterward,  having  spent 
several  years  in  Italy,  he  endeavored  to  imitate  the  color  and 
force  of  the  great  Venetian  masters  and  the  chiaroscuro  of 
Correggio.  Thus  he  became  somewhat  of  an  eclectic  painter, 
influenced  by  the  different  schools  of  Italy  and  Belgium. 
He  was  first  president  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  London  and 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  upon  his  immediate  followers. 
His  popular  "  Discourses  "  consists  of  lectures  given  to  the 
students  of  the  academy.  He  painted  historical  pictures, 
but  they  are  inferior  to  his  portraits. 

His  principle  was  that  likeness  and  individual  character 
depend  more  upon  the  general  effect  than  upon  the  exact 
modelling  and  likeness  of  the  features. 

His  composition  is  graceful,  his  light  and  shade  soft  and 
broad,  and  his  color  rich,  warm,  and  harmonious. 


ENGLISH  PAINTING.  229 

He  was  particularly  successful  in  his  portraits  of  women 
and  children. 

His  works  can  best  be  studied  in  National  Gallery,  London, 
and  in  private  collections  throughout  England ;  they  can  also  be 


SIR  JOSHUA  REYNOLDS.     PORTRAIT  OF  DUCHESS  OF  DEVONSHIRE. 

seen  m  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York  City.  The  most 
noted  is  probably  "Allegorical  Portrait  of  Mrs.  Siddons,"  Dulwich 
Gallery,  England. 

Well-known   pictures   often   engraved    are   "  Innocence "  and 
u  Angels'  Heads,"  both  of  which  are  in  National  Gallery,  London. 


230  THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

O\  Thomas  Gainsborough  (1727-1 788),  born  in  Sudbury,  Suffolk, 
is  celebrated  for  his  portraits,  landscapes,  and  genre  pictures. 
He  was  a  thoroughly  original  painter,  both  in  conception 
and  execution,  and,  unlike  Reynolds,  followed  no  school 
traditions. 

He  was  fond  of  cool  coloring.  His  celebrated  "  Blue 
Boy,"  a  youth  in  blue  satin,  is  said  to  have  been  painted  to 
disprove  the  opinion  of  Reynolds  that  the  predominance  of 
blue  in  a  picture  is  incompatible  with  a  good  color  effect. 

He  used  the  peculiar  method  of  handling  called  hatching. 

His  landscapes  are  marked  by  much  poetic  feeling. 

Important  works  : 

Portraits  of  Mrs.  Siddons  and  Dr.  Schomberg.    National  Gallery, 

London. 

"  The  Blue  Boy."     Grosvenor  Gallery,  London. 
Fine  landscapes  are  in  South  Kensington  Museum  and  National 

Gallery,  London. 

s  |  George  Romney  (1734-1802),  born  in  Dalton,  Lancashire, 
was  a  rival  of  Reynolds  and  Gainsborough  in  portrait 
painting. 

His  works  of  this  kind  are  remarkable  for  fine  drawing 
and  modelling,  with  freedom  of  handling.  In  richness  of 
color  they  are  inferior  to  Reynolds'. 

He  also  produced  ideal  works  in  which  is  shown  a  refined 
poetic  fancy. 

Many  examples  may  be  seen  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum,  Cam- 
bridge, and  Royal  Institute,  Liverpool. 

Benjamin  West  (1738-1820),  born  in  Springfield,  Pennsyl- 
vania, belongs  by  right  to  the  English  School  of  painting. 
When  a  very  young  man  he  painted  portraits  in  Philadelphia, 
then  removed  to  New  York,  but  when  twenty-two  years  of 
age  went  to  Rome,  where  he  studied  for  about  three  years 


ENGLISH  PAINTING.  231 

and  immediately  afterward  settled  in  England,  where  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

He  is  the  chief  historical  painter  of  his  time  in  England. 

His  composition  is  powerful,  his  drawing  good,  but  his 
color  is  characterized  by  a  dull  red  and  is  monotonous. 

He  inaugurated  a  new  era  in  historical  painting  by 
dressing  his  characters  in  the  costumes  of  their  times  instead 
of  the  conventional  Greek  and  Roman  ones  which  had  been 
invariably  used  before.  At  the  time  he  was  much  opposed 
by  other  artists,  including  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 

West  himself  thus  gives  an  interesting  account  of  his  first 
painting  of  this  kind,  the  "  Death  of  General  Wolfe  ":  "When 
it  was  understood  that  I  intended  to  paint  the  characters  as 
they  had  actually  appeared  on  the  scene,  the  Archbishop  of 
York  called  on  Reynolds  and  asked  his  opinion.  They  both 
came  to  my  house  to  dissuade  me  from  running  so  great  a 
risk.  Reynolds  began  a  very  ingenious  and  elegant  disserta- 
tion on  the  state  of  the  public  taste  in  this  country,  and  the 
danger  which  every  innovation  incurred  of  contempt  and 
ridicule,  and  concluded  by  urging  me  earnestly  to  adopt  the 
costume  of  antiquity  as  more  becoming  the  greatness  of  my 
subject  than  the  modern  garb  of  European  warriors.  I 
answered  that  '  the  event  to  be  commemorated  happened  in 
the  year  1758,  in  a  region  of  the  world  unknown  to  Greeks 
and  Romans,  and  at  a  period  of  time  when  no  warriors  who 
wore  such  costume  existed.  The  subject  I  have  to  represent 
is  a  great  battle  fought  and  won  ;  and  the  same  truth  which 
gives  law  to  the  historian  should  rule  the  painter.  If,  instead 
of  the  facts  of  the  action,  I  introduce  fictions,  how  shall  I  be 
understood  by  posterity  ?  I  want  to  mark  the  place,  the 
time,  the  people,  and  to  do  this  I  must  abide  by  the  truth.' 

"  They  went  away  then,  and  returned  when  I  had  the 
painting  finished.  Reynolds  seated  himself  before  the  pic- 
ture, examined  it  with  deep  and  minute  attention  for  half  an 


232  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

hour,  then,  rising,  said  to  Drummond,  'West  has  conquered; 
he  has  treated  the  subject  as  it  ought  to  be  treated  ;  I  retract 
my  objections ;  I  foresee  that  this  picture  will  not  only 
become  one  of  the  most  popular,  but  will  occasion  a  revo- 
lution in  art.'  " 

When  we  look  at  the  picture  we  cannot  help  wishing  that 
the  artist  had  not  been  quite  so  literal  as  to  make  the  great 
general  die  with  the  hard,  stiff,  black  stock  about  his  neck. 

West  was  patronized  by  King  George  III,  from  whom  he 
received  a  salary  for  thirty-three  years.  He  was  second 
president  of  the  Royal  Academy. 

His  "  Death  of  General  Wolfe  "  is  in  the  Grosvenor  Gallery, 
London.  He  is  also  represented  in  National  Gallery,  London. 
Seventeen  pictures  are  in  Hampton  Court,  England.  Pictures 
are  in  museums  and  private  galleries  of  America. 

James  Barry  (1741-1806),  a  native  of  Ireland;  Henry 
Fuseli  (1741-1825),  born  in  Zurich;  and  John  Opie  (1761- 
1807),  of  Cornwall,  England,  were  successful  professors  of 
painting  in  the  Royal  Academy  and  excelled  more  as  art 
writers  and  critics  than  as  painters. 

Examples  of  Barry's  work  may  be  seen  in  his  "  Adam  and 
Eve,"  South  Kensington  Museum,  London  ;  also,  series  of  six 
pictures  representing  the  history  of  the  civilization  of  man.  Adel- 
phi  Gallery,  London. 

Fuseli's  best  works  are  his  illustrative  series,  "  Milton  Gallery," 
consisting  of  forty-seven  designs,  and  "  Boydell's  Shakespeare 
Gallery,"  of  eight  designs. 

Opie's  portraits  are  in  English  galleries. 


Sir  Thomas  Lawrence  (1769-1830),  born  in  Bristol,  excelled 
chiefly  in  his  portraits  of  women  and  children.  He  was  a 
fine  colorist,  but  was  not  very  correct  in  drawing,  some  of 
his  figures  being  noticeably  out  of  proportion  to  their  heads. 


ENGLISH  PAINTING.  233 

This  fault  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  he  often  employed 
other  artists  to  complete  his  picture  after  he  had  painted 
the  head.  He  sometimes  lost  the  value  of  figures  in  the 
splendor  of  the  accessories. 

Portraits  by  him  are  in  Waterloo  Gallery,  Windsor  ;  National 
Gallery,  London  ;  and  private  collections  throughout  England. 

William  Etty  (1787-1849)  was  a  pupil  of  Lawrence. 
His  early  work  was  not  very  successful,  but  after  a  period 
of  study  in  Venice  he  conquered  the  difficulties  of  flesh 
painting  as  few  English  painters  have  done,  and  produced 
many  fine  figure  pieces. 

Works  are  in  Royal  Academy,  Edinburgh,  and  National  Gal- 
lery, London. 

\William  Blake  (1757-1827),  born  in  London,  was  a  most 
eccentric  artist.  He  was  a  designer  rather  than  a  painter, 
for  few  of  his  compositions  possess  any  color  harmonies. 

His  subjects  are  religious,  and  those  intended  especially 
to  improve  mankind.  His  invention  was  endless,  his  de- 
signs extravagant,  but  often  fine,  even  grand  in  composition. 

Most  of  his  figures  are  superb  in  sweep  of  line  and  force 
of  action.  Many  of  his  works  are  tinted  etchings. 

He  may  be  studied  in  the  chief  museums  of  England  and 
America. 

Richard  Wilson  (1713-1782)  was  the  first  important  Eng- 
ish  landscape  painter.  His  pictures  are  far  more  popular  -., 
to-day  than  when  he  painted  them.  They  are  largely  classic 
scenes,  in  which  there  is  considerable  conventionality,  after 
the  manner  of  Italian  landscapes.  They  are  marked  by 
good  composition,  somewhat  cold  color,  bold  and  massive 
foregrounds,  verdant  foliage,  and  wide  distances.  The  fig- 
ures were  generally  painted  by  some  other  artist. 

Many  of  his  pictures  have  been  engraved.  Among  these  are  : 
"  Cicero  in  his  Villa,"  "  Meleager  and  Atalanta,"  "  Apollo  and  the 
Seasons,"  and  "  Niobe."  He  may  be  studied  in  English  galleries. 


234  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Vjohn  Constable  (1776-1837),  like  Wilson,  was  influenced 
'at  first  by  Italian  landscape  painting.  Afterward,  following 
the  Dutch  painters,  he  studied  nature  and  put  much  realism 
into  his  work.  His  pictures  of  English  rural  scenery  are, 
for  simplicity  of  subject,  truth  of  nature,  and  freshness  of 
color,  truly  admirable. 

He  possessed  mannerisms,  one  of  which  was  his  fond- 
ness for  representing  dew  on  the  vegetation,  which  often 
gives  a  spotty  effect. 

Representative  works  are  in  South  Kensington  Museum  and 
National  Gallery,  London. 

Following  Constable  are  the  landscape  painters  John 
Crome  (1760-1821),  commonly  called  Old  Crome,  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  younger  painters  of  the  same  name,  — 
a  keen  student  of  natural  effects,  whose  best  works  are  in 
National  Gallery,  London  •,  and  Sir  Augustus  Callcott  (1779- 
1844),  sometimes  called  the  English  Claude,  who  followed 
Italian  methods  rather  than  nature.  Callcott  also  painted 
works  of  the  higher  genre. 

Joseph  Mallord  William  Turner  (1775-1851)  is  one  of  the 
best-known  names  in  landscape  painting.  Mr.  Ruskin,  the 
great  English  art  critic,  made  it  a  chief  object  in  the  writing 
of  his  "  Modern  Painters  "  to  hold  the  works  of  Turner  up 
for  the  admiration  of  the  world,  believing  that  he  has 
painted  the  noblest  skies,  mountains,  trees,  and  seas  ever 
represented  by  artists'  brush.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
hard-working,  as  well  as  original  of  painters.  For  more  than 
sixty  years,  with  scarcely  an  intermission,  his  pictures  were 
hung  on  the  walls  of  the  Royal  Academy. 

His  life  is  remarkable  by  reason  of  the  contrast  between 
its  humble  origin,  the  weakness  and  pitifulness  of  its  private 
aims,  and  its  splendid  results  for  the  nation  and  the  world 
of  art,  for,  despite  all  his  faults,  Turner  was  a  great  painter. 


ENGLISH  PAINTING.  235 

Characteristics.  —  His  taste  was  classic,  and  Claude  Lor- 
raine was  his  first  model.  He  always  idealized  his  subject, 
not  painting  the  place  itself,  but,  after  having  grasped  all 
the  principal  features  of  a  region,  gathering  these  into  one 
impression,  which  he  placed  on  paper  or  canvas. 

He  loved  to  paint  wide  distances,  rivers,  seas,  moun- 
tains, anything  that  would  give  a  sweep  of  horizon  lines,— 
delighted  in  effects  of  aerial  perspective,  and  studied  the 
problem  of  painting  sunlight  until  he  was  distracted.  Such 
luminosity  as  his  is  seen  in  the  work  of  no  other  painter. 

He  had  three  styles;  the  first  is  highly  elaborated,  with 
comparatively  cool  color  ;  the  third,  used  during  the  last 
years  of  his  life,  is  almost  literally  destitute  of  form  and 
wholly  extravagant  in  excess  and  wildness  of  color  ;  the  sec- 
ond is  between  these  two  and  marks  his  best  works. 

He  painted  in  both  oil  and  water  colors.  Many  critics 
give  a  superior  rank  to  his  water  colors.  His  reckless  man- 
ner of  using  oils  has  tended  to  their  change  of  color. 

Two  rooms  in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  are  devoted  solely 
to  Turner's  oil  pictures,  among  which  "  Fighting  Temeraire  "  and 
"  Wilkie's  Burial  "  are  perhaps  the  most  noted. 

A  Turner  Water  Color  Gallery  is  attached  to  the  National 
Gallery,  which  contains  about  three  hundred  of  his  water-color 
paintings,  including  the  original  illustrations  of  Roger's  Italy. 

"  The  Slave  Ship,"  one  of  his  most  famous  later  works,  is  in 
the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston. 

Among  other  well-known  water-color  landscape  painters 
are  Thomas  Stothard  (1755-1834),  many  of  whose  works  are 
illustrative;  Anthony  Fielding  (1787-1849),  and  Samuel  Prout 
(1783-1852). 

The  most  noted  genre  painters  are  Sir  David  WilMe  (1785- 
1841)  ;  Charles  Robert  Leslie  (1794-1859),  born  of  American 
parents  ;  Gilbert  Stuart  Newton  (1794-1835),  born  in  Halifax, 
Nova  Scotia  ;  and  William  Mulready  (1786-1863). 


236 


THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


All  are  well  represented   in    South    Kensington   Museum  and 
National  Gallery,  London. 

Nj  Sir  Edwin  Landseer  (1802-1873)  has  gained  distinction  as 
animal  painter.  His  pictures  are  full  of  sentiment  and 
evince  such  sympathy  with  the  dumb  creation  that  they 
appeal  to  the  heart  and  are  justly  popular.  Deer  and  dogs 
are  his  favorite  subjects,  and  his  paintings  of  these  crea- 


SIR  EDWIN  LANDSKER.    WAITING  FOR  HIS  MISTRESS,  THE  COUNTESS. 

tures    have    been   so   admirably  reproduced  that  they  are 
familiar  to  all. 

Many  of  his  pictures  are  in  South  Kensington  Museum  and 
National  Gallery,  London. 

Among  other  painters  of  animals  are  Charles  Landseer,  the 
brother  of  Sir  Edwin  ;  James  Ward,  a  farmyard  painter  ; 
John  F.  Herring,  whose  pictures  of  horses  are  so  popular  ; 
and  Edwin  Douglas,  known  by  his  Jersey  cattle. 


ENGLISH  PAINTING.  237 


ENGLISH  PR/E-RAPHAELITISM. 

About  1847  arose  the  Pra-Raphaelite  movement  in  art, 
inaugurated  by  Hunt,  Rossetti,  and  Millais,  and  assisted  by 
the  influence  of  Mr.  Ruskin  and  other  writers,  together 
with  a  few  sculptors. 

Its  aim,  like  that  of  the  German  "  Brethren,"  was  to 
improve  the  art  then  being  produced,  and,  like  that,  took 
for  its  model  the  work  of  painters  who  preceded  Raphael. 
Unlike  the  Germans,  however,  whose  great  endeavor  was 
to  imitate  the  simple  devotional  spirit  of  the  fourteenth- 
century  painters,  the  Englishmen  strove  to  follow  the  real- 
ism of  design  and  execution  that  marks  the  work  of  these 
old  masters.  They  resolved  to  render  all  ideas  materially, 
and  to  give  a  faithful  transcript  of  nature. 

They   called   themselves   the    "  Prae-Raphaelite    Brother- 
hood," and  often  signed  their  pictures  "  P.  R.  B." 
\/    Holman_Hunt  (1827-1910)  exhibits  fully  the  principles  of 
Vibe  Brotherhood.     Even  the  most  ideal  of  his  works  are 
Jzeated__with   absolute  realism.     This  is  indeed  their  chief 
characteristic.     He  has  studied,  as  have  few  others,  to  gain 
the  true  and  literal  setting  for  every  subject,  never  allowing 
himself  to  paint  a  picture  whose  scene  is  laid  in  a  foreign 
country  without  visiting  it  and  learning  the  truth  regarding 
accessories. 

The  result  is  that  his  pictures  seem  to  be  made  up  merely 
of  these  accessories,  which  impress  beyond  the  subject. 

We  are  tempted  to  count  the  leaves  and  fruit  on  his  trees, 
the  blades  of  grass  in  his  foregrounds,  the  shavings  on  the 
floor,  and  the  nail-heads  on  the  wall.  The  great  pictorial 
truths  of  light,  color,  and  atmosphere  are  sacrificed. 

Some  of  his  latest  work  seems  slightly  modified  for  the 
better. 


238  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Examples  often  reproduced  are  "  The  Light  of  the  World," 
"  Christ  in  the  Temple,"  "  The  Shadow  of  the  Cross,"  "  Triumph 
of  the  Innocents." 

Dante  Gabriel  Rossettijj828-i882)  was  an  Italian  by  birth 
and  a  poet  by  nature.  He  chose  his  subjects  for  painting 
from^poems  jmd  mytholQgy,_and  was  naturally  so  much 
given  to  the  ideal  that  it  was  wholly  impossible  for  him, 
however  much  he  strove,  to  carry  out  the  principles  of  his 
Brotherhood.  His  work  was  only  hampered  and  injured  by 
the  attempt. 

He  loved  best  to  paint  the  faces  and  figures  of  women. 

In  these  there  is  much  subtle^  spiritual  beauty.  His  drawing 
is  often  defective.  The  mannerisms  of  singularly  shaped  necks 
ajidjiands7  of  eyes  full  of  unsatisfied  longing,  of  full  lips,  and 
hair  thatialls  heavily  with~Tts^welght^  mark  his  pictures. 

His  color  is  particularly  rich  and  glowing  HisjDowerjjf 
design  is  seen  in  many  fine  decorative  effects. 

Examples  often  reproduced  are  "  Girlhood  of  the  Virgin," 
"  Annunciation,"  "  Beata  Beatrix." 

\SirJohn  Everett  Millais  (1829-1896)  followed  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Brotherhood  only  for  a  short  time,  and  but  few  of 
his  pictures  can  be  called  examples  of  the  movement ;  among 
these  is  "Jesus  in  the  Carpenter's  Shop  holding  up  His 
Wounded  Hand." 

A  feeling  for  the  higher  genre  entered  into  his  work  and 
is  illustrated  in  some  of  his  most  famous  pictures. 

He  became  a  fine  portrait  and  figure  painter,  and  takes 
high  rank  among  English  artists  of  his  day. 

Among  his  best-known  pictures  are  "  The  Huguenot  Lovers," 
"  Boy  Princes  in  the  Tower,"  "  First  Sermon,"  "  Second  Sermon," 
«  Yes  or  No  ?  " 

The  most  important  men  influenced  by  the  Pras-Raphael- 
ites  were^Ford  Madox  Brown  (1821-1893)  painter  of  historic 


ENGLISH  PAINTING. 


239 


subjects  ;VBurne-Jones  (1833-1898),  pupil  of  Rossetti,  whose 
finely  drawn   pictures, 
half  classic,  half  roman- 
tic, are  full  of  charm ; 
and  Alfred  Moore  (i  840- 


Among  other  noted 
names  are  SirJFrederick 
J-eightpn  (i 830-1 896), 
late  President  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  who 
painted  Italian  and  Ori- 
ental scenes  and  por- 
traits ;  Edward  J.  Poynter 

(1836 ),    present 

President  of  Royal 
Academy,  who  paints 
mythological  scenes 
and  portraits  ^George 
J3  T._Watts_(i8i8-i904), 
whose  poetic,  alle^_ 
gorical  pictures  and 
portraits  are  so  well 
"Known  ;  W.  Q.  Orchard- 
son  (1835 ),  painter 

of  higher  genre,  some- 
what after  Hogarth's 
style  ;  George  W. 
Boughton  (1834-1905), 
sometimes  numbered 
among  American  paint- 
ers because  his  early 
years  were  spent  in  this  country,  who  paints  Puritans  and 
French  and  Dutch  peasants  ;  Frank  Holl  (1845-1890)  and 


BURNB-JONBS.   N.GHT. 


240  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Hubert  Herkomer  (1849  ~  — )>  portrait  painters  ;  Elizabeth 
Thompson  Butler,  so  successful  in  her  "Roll-Call,"  "Return 
to  Inkerman,"  and  other  military  pictures  ;  Alfred  Parsons  and 
W.  L.  Wyllie,  landscape  painters ;  and  Henry  Moore,  marine 
painter. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

AMERICAN    PAINTING. 

Characteristics.  —  Early  American  painting  was  influenced 
by  English  and  consists  chiefly  of  portraits.  Later,  artists 
went  to  Rome  and  Germany  and  brought  back  the  influence 
of  those  schools.  The  character  of  the  painting  of  the  last 
thirty  years  has  been  most  strongly  influenced  by  French 
methods.  Most  of  the  prominent  artists  now  at  work  have 
studied  in  Paris  schools  and  studios. 

Quite  an  original  school  of  landscape  painting  exists. 

WHERE  TO  FIND  WORKS  OF  EARLY  AMERICAN  ARTISTS. 

Examples  of  the  work  of  early  artists  are  in  Faneuil 
Hall,  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  Building,  Athenaeum 
Library,  and  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston ;  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, Cambridge,  Mass. ;  Yale  School  of  Fine  Arts,  New 
Haven,  Conn.  ;  Lenox  and  Historical  Society  Libraries, 
National  Academy  of  Design,  and  Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York  City ;  Pennsylvania  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  and 
Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia ;  and  in  the  Corcoran 
Gallery  and  Capitol,  Washington  ;  also  many  are  in  private 
galleries  and  family  collections. 

Benjamin  West,  although  American  by  birth,  belongs  so 
obviously  to  the  English  School  that  he  has  been  considered 
in  that  place. 

\John  Singleton  Copley  (1737-1815),  born  in  Boston,  was  at 
first  a  portrait  painter  in  that  city.  In  1774  he  visited  Italy, 
where  he  studied  especially  the  works  of  Titian  and  Correggio. 

241 


242 


THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


A  few  years  later  he  established  himself  in  London,  where 
he   painted   many   historical   pictures.     In    portraiture   his 


J.  SINGLETON  COPLEY.    PORTRAIT  OF  SAMUEL  ADAMS. 
MUSEUM  OF  FINE  ARTS,  BOSTON. 


manner  is  rather  hard,  and   his    attitudes   stiff.     There  is 
good  painting  in  the  accessories. 

Several  of  his  historical  pictures  are  in  the  National  Gallery,  Lon- 
don, among  which  the  most  noted  is  "  Death  of  Lord  Chatham." 


AMERICAN  PAINTING.  243 

Many  of  his  portraits  are  in  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston, 
and  in  private  families  in  Massachusetts. 

/\ Gilbert  jharieg_StuMt_(i755-i828)>  portrait  painter,  born 
in  Narragansett,  R.  I.,  was  a  pupil  of  West  in  London.  He 
settled  in  Philadelphia  and  later  in  Boston,  where  he  died. 

He  painted  portraits  of  several  of  the  presidents,  as  well 
as  of  most  of  the  distinguished  men  of  the  Revolution. 
These  possess  much  force,  and  express  the  various  char- 
acters of  the  sitters  as  no  other  early  portraits  do.  This  was 
the  chief  endeavor  of  Stuart ;  he  believed  that  the  form,  lines, 
and  color  of  the  face  betray  individual  characteristics,  and 
used  to  study  his  subjects  long  and  critically. 

He  painted  several  portraits  of  Washington,  the  best  of  which 
(unfinished)  is  in  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  together  with 
other  pictures. 

Charles  W.  Peale  (1741-1827),  born  in  Chesterton,  Md.,  and 
a  pupil  of  West  and  Copley,  has  given  us  likenesses  of  very 
distinguished  men  of  his  time,  including  Washington,  whom 
he  painted  many  times. 

Over  one  hundred  examples  of  his  work  are  in  Independence 
Hall,  Philadelphia.  They  possess  no  decided  artistic  merit. 

His  son,  Rembrandt  Peale  (1787-1860),  studied  with  West 
in  London,  and  painted  for  a  time  in  Paris.  In  his  early 
years  he  produced  some  imaginative  pictures,  but  afterward 
devoted  himself  to  portrait  painting. 

His  portrait  of  Washington  in  the  Senate  Chamber  of  the  Cap- 
itol, Washington,  is  often  reproduced. 

Other  portrait  painters  of  note  are  John  Wesley  Jarvis 
(1780-1834);  Thomas  Sully  (1783-1872);  Edward  Malbone 
(1777-1807),  celebrated  for  his  beautiful  miniatures  ;  Henry 
Inman  (1801-1846),  also  a  painter  of  genre;  Charles  Loring 
Elliott  (1812-1868);  Chester  Harding  (1792-1866);  George 
Fuller  (1822-1884)  5  and  George  Healy  (1808-1894). 


244  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

^  John_ Trumbull  (1756-1843)  was  born  in  Lebanon,  Conn. 
His  life  was  divided  between  military  and  diplomatic  pur- 
suits and  the  practice  of  painting.  For  several  years  he 
was  a  member  of  General  Washington's  staff. 

He  is  noted  particularly  for  his  Revolutionary  pictures, 
which  contain  portraits  of  many  chief  actors  in  the  scenes. 
Tfjey  are  interesting,  but  possess  little  real  art  value. 

Several  are  in  the  Yale  Art  School,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Emanuel  Leutze  (1816-1868),  born  in  Germany,  and  edu- 
cated in  the  Diisseldorf  School,  exerted  some  influence  on 
American  painting  of  his  time.  He  travelled  widely  and 
painted  scenes  in  the  histories  of  many  nations,  but  was 
particularly  fond  of  those  connected  with  America.  Every- 
thing adventurous  appealed  to  him. 

Some  of  his  best-known  pictures  are  "  Columbus  before  the 
Queen,"  "  Washington  crossing  the  Delaware,"  "  John  Knox 
admonishing  Mary  Stuart." 

Good  examples  of  his  portraits  are  those  of  Secretary  Seward 
and  General  Grant,  both  well  known  by  reproduction. 

His  work  may  be  seen  in  the  Capitol,  and  Corcoran  Gallery, 
Washington,  and  many  private  naileries. 

r\JLQ*-Q<!  ^jL/J'-r 

JWaghington  Allston  (1779-1543)  was  born  in  South  Caro- 
lina. In  1801  he  went  to  London,  and  studied  in  the  Royal 
Academy  under  the  presidency  of  Benjamin  West.  Later 
he  spenF  several^  years  of  study  in  Rome.  In  1818  hg. 
returned  to  America  and  lived  for  the  rest  of  his  life  in 
Boston  aiid  -CamJindge^Mass.  He  was  a  man  of  strong 
intellectual  powers  and  possessed  a  most  refined  and  poetic 
vtaste. 

He  painted  religious  and  historical  pictures,  and  also  some 
ideal  heads.^ 

His  work  is  very  imaginative,  and  founded  little  upon  any 
study  of  nature. 


AMERICAN  PAINTING.  245 

Several  of  his  finest  works  are  in  private  galleries  in  and  near 
Boston.  "  Belshazzar's  Feast,"  unfinished,  is  in  the  Museum  of 
Fine  Arts  with  several  other  pictures. 

Thomas  Cole  (1801-1848),  born  in  England,  came  to 
America  when  a  child  and  became  the  pioneer  landscape 
painter  of  this  country.  He  won  his  firstjfame_b^^ainting 
autumnal  scenery  along  the  shores  of  the  Hudson. 

His  drawing  is  good,  but  his  light  and  color  are  somewhat 
unnatural. 

He  also  painted  allegorical  pictures  which  have  been 
engraved. 

The  best  known  of  these  are  probably  "  The  Voyage  of  Life  " 
and  "  Course  of  Empire." 

Most  of  his  work  is  in  private  galleries. 

Following  Cole  as  landscape  painters  come  John  F.  Ken- 
sett  (1818-1872),  whose  pictures  are  dreamy  and  poetic; 
HJredericEdwin  Church  (1826-1900),  famous  for  his  portrayal 
of  mountain  scenery  and  the  grand  in  nature,  such  as 
"  Head  of  Andes,"  "  Cotopaxi,"  "  Niagara,"  etc.  :  Albert 
Bierstadt  (  1  8  3  o-  1  Q  o  2  )  an  d'rhomas  Moran  (18^7  --  ),  painters 
f  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Californian  scenery;  A.  H. 

Samuel  Cole- 


_ 

man  (1833  --  ),  and  R.  Swain  Gilford  (1840-1905),  some  of 
our  best  landscapists  ;  and  George  L.  Brown,  best  known  by 
his  pictures  of  Italian  scenery. 

William  T.  Bradford  (1830-1892),  who  has  painted  ice- 
,bergs,  W.  T.  Richards  (1833-1905),  and  Mauritz  F.  H.  De 
Haas  (1832-18951,  born  in  Holland,  are  well-known  marine 
painters. 

L  William  Hflnfo  Hunt  fyfto/i-Tftyf^  hnm  in  Brattleboro,  Vt., 
became  a  pupil  of  Couture  in  Paris  in  1848.  Afterward  he 
became  a  follower  of~Millet  at  Barbizon,  and,  returning_to 
Boston  in^S^^jJ^ntroduced  the  F  otrtainebIeau:Jjarbizon(see 


246 


THE  WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


French  School)  methods  of  painting  to  America.  He  opened 
an  art  school  in  Boston  and  received  a  large  number  of 
pupils,  by  whom  he  was  greatly  admired,  and  over  whom 


WILLIAM  MORRIS  HUNT.    BOY  VIOLINIST. 

he  exerted  a  powerful  influence.    It  is  safe  to  say  that  his  is 
one  of  the  great  names  in  the  history  of  American  painting. 
His  works  cover  a  wide  range :  history,  allegory,  portrait, 
and  the  purely  ideal. 

The  allegorical  decorations  of  the  State  Capitol  in  Albany, 
N.Y.,  were  painted  by  him. 

Well-known  pictures  are  "  The  Bugle-Call,"  "  The  Drummer 
Boy,"  "  Woman  with  Lute,"  and  "  The  Bathers.' 


AMERICAN  PAINTING. 


247 


vEfihu  Vedder  (1836 ),  who  has  lived  in  Italy  for  many 

years,  is  noted  for  the  weird,  imaginative,  poetic  nature  of 
his  designs.  He  makes  his  subtile  curves  express  meaning 
in  a  wonderful  way. 

His  work  is  wanting  in  fulness  and  harmony  of  color. 

Noted  pictures  are"  Cumaean  Sibyl,"  "Questioner  of  the  Sphinx," 
and  "  Lair  of  the  Sea-Serpent." 

His  designs  for  the  "  Rubaiyat,"  by  Omar  Khayydm,  are 
remarkable.  Some  of  the  best  known  of  these  are  "  The  Last 
Man,"  "  The  Cup  of  Death,"  and  "  The  Cup  of  Love." 


JOHN  S.  SARGENT.    HEAD  OF  HOSBA.    DETAIL  OF  FRIEZE  OF  THE  PROPHETS. 
PUBLIC  LIBRARY,  BOSTON. 

t 

A  few  American  figure  and  portrait  painters  have  lived 
abroad  and  won  fame  there,  as  well  as  at  home.  Eminent 
among  them  arejohn  S.  Sargent,  J.  A.  McNeillLWhistler/ 


248 


THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 


(d.  i903^l£dwin.A.  Abbey,  Frederick  Bridgman,  Edwin L.  Weeks, 

^(Walter  Gay,  Charles  Sprague  Pearce,  and  Edwin  H^Bjashfield. 

Among  the  many  who  are  doing  good  work  at  home,  and 

whose  pictures  rank  high  in  the  frequent  art  exhibitions  of 


ABBOTT  H.  THAYBR.    CARITAS.     MUSEUM  OF  FINE  ARTS,  BOSTON. 

the  day,  only  a  few  names  can  be  noticed  —  Eastman  John- 
son (1824-1906),  Winslow  Homer  (1836-1910),  John^LfTFarge 
(1835-1910),  decorative  artist,  William  M.  Chase.  Kenyon  Cox, 
Abbott  H.  Thayer,  Walter  Shirlaw,  Childe  Hassam,  J.  Carroll 
Beckwith,  Edward  E.  Simmons,  J.  Alden  Weir,  Edmund  C. 
Tarbell,  Frank  W.  Benson,  J.  Wells  Champney  (d.  1903),  and 
Robert  W.  Vonnoh. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

INTERESTING   INFORMATION    FOR  STUDENTS   OF 
PICTURES. 

SIGNIFICANCE   OF   COLORS. 

COLORS  were  used  by  the  old  masters  of  painting,  espe- 
cially in  Italy,  in  a  symbolic  sense,  thus  : 

White  was  the  emblem  of  light,  religious  purity,  and  innocence. 
Our  Saviour  was  dressed  in  white  after  his  resurrection,  and 
the  Virgin  in  annunciation  and  assumption  pictures. 

Red  signified  divine  love,  heat,  or  the  creative  power,  and  royalty. 
White  and  red  roses,  as  in  St.  Cecilia's  garland,  expressed 
innocence  and  love.  In  a  bad  sense,  red  signified  blood,  war, 
hatred,  and  punishment.  Red  and  black  combined  were  the 
colors  of  purgatory  and  of  Satan. 

Blue  expressed  truth  and  constancy.  Christ  and  the  Virgin  Mary 
wear  the  red  tunic  and  the  blue  mantle,  as  signifying  heavenly 
love  and  heavenly  truth.  The  same  colors  were  usually 
given  to  St.  John  —  with  this  difference,  that  he  wears  the 
blue  tunic  and  the  red  mantle.  In  some  later  pictures  the 
colors  are  red  and  green. 

Yellow  was  the  symbol  of  the  sun,  of  the  goodness  of  God,  of 
marriage,  of  faith  and  fruitfulness.  St.  Joseph,  the  husband 
of  the  Virgin  Mary,  wears  yellow.  In  pictures  of  the  apos- 
tles, St.  Peter  wears  a  yellow  mantle  over  a  blue  tunic.  In 
a  bad  sense,  yellow  signified  inconstancy,  jealousy,  deceit. 
In  this  latter  sense  it  is  given  to  the  traitor,  Judas  Iscariot, 
who  is  generally  clad  in  dirty  yellow. 

Green  expressed  hope,  especially  hope  in  immortality ;  also  victory, 
as  the  color  of  the  palm  and  the  laurel. 
249 


250  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

Violet  signified  love  and  truth,  or  passion  and  suffering ;  hence 
it  is  the  color  often  worn  by  martyrs.  Mary  Magdalene  as 
patron  saint  wears  the  red  robe ;  as  a  suffering  penitent  she 
wears  violet.  These  colors,  however,  were  not  arbitrary,  and 
exceptions  may  be  found  in  the  use  of  all  of  them,  although 
that  here  given  was  general. 

EMBLEMS  BY  WHICH  MANY  OF  THE  VARIOUS  CHARACTERS 

REPRESENTED  IN  A  DEVOTIONAL  PAINTING  MAY 

BE  RECOGNIZED. 

There  are  some  very  interesting  facts  regarding  the  man- 
ner in  which  Christian  art  has  pictured  the  three  persons 
of  the  Holy  Trinity,  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  apostles,  saints, 
and  martyrs,  a  knowledge  of  which  is  necessary  to  the 
student  of  historical  painting  in  order  that  he  may  under- 
stand the  thought  of  the  artist  who  has  painted  any  devo- 
tional picture.  Especially  is  this  the  case  since  there  is  no 
other  class  of  pictures  by  the  old  masters  so  numerous  as 
this. 

A  list  of  the  most  important  emblems  which  enable  us  to 
know  the  characters  denoted  in  a  painting  of  this  sort  is 
given  below: 

The  Nimbus  and  Aureole  are  used  only  in  the  portrayal  of  some 
holy  being.  They  are  usually  gold,  or  the  color  of  gold,  to 
denote  brightness. 

The  Nimbus  surrounds  the  head  and  designates  any  holy  person 
or  saint,  as  well  as  Divinity.  It  is  usually  circular  ;  when 
triangular  or  containing  a  cross  it  always  designates  a  per- 
son of  the  Holy  Trinity  ;  when  square  it  denotes  that  the 
holy  person  was  living  at  the  time  the  picture  was  painted. 
From  the  fifth  to  the  twelfth  century  it  was  pictured  as  a 
solid  golden  disc,  or  plate,  over  the  head  ;  from  the  twelfth 
to  the  fifteenth  it  was  a  broad  golden  band  around  or  behind 
the  head  ;  from  the  fifteenth  it  has  been  a  bright  fillet  over 
the  head. 


INFORMATION  FOR  STUDENTS  OF  PICTURES.    251 

The  Aureole  surrounds  the  entire  body  and  belongs  only  to  the 
persons  of  the  Godhead  and  the  Virgin  Mary.  Sometimes, 
but  not  often,  it  is  pictured  about  the  figure  of  a  saint  when 
in  the  act  of  ascending  to  heaven. 

The  Lamb  is  the  peculiar  symbol  of  Christ  the  "  Lamb  of  God,"  as 
the  sacrifice  without  blemish.  1 1  is  sometimes  given  to  John  the 
Baptist,  also  in  the  sense  of  sacrifice.  As  a  general  emblem  of 
innocence,  meekness,  and  modesty,  it  is  given  to  St.  Agnes. 

The  Lion  is  also  a  symbol  of  Christ  the  "  Lion  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,"  and  is  used  as  such  in  early  Christian  art.  In  its 
significance  of  solitude  it  is  placed  near  saints  who  lived  as 
hermits.  It  often  accompanies  St.  Jerome  because  of  the 
legend  that  this  saint  once  pulled  a  thorn  from  the  foot  of 
a  lion  that  ever  afterward  accompanied  him.  As  denoting 
martyrdom  in  the  amphitheatre  it  is  found  with  martyr  saints, 
as  St.  Ignatius  and  St.  Euphemia. 

The  Serpent,  an  emblem  of  sin,  is  often  at  the  feet  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  ;  when  entwined  about  a  globe  it  symbolizes  the  power 
of  sin  over  the  world. 

The  Peacock  is  an  emblem  of  immortality  ;  in  mythological 
pictures  it  accompanies  Juno. 

The  Dove  is  the  emblem  of  the  Holy  Ghost  ;  also  of  simplicity 
and  purity  in  many  pictures  of  the  Madonna  and  Child. 

The  Sword  signifies  martyrdom,  and  thus  is  given  to  St.  Paul 
and  others  who  died  by  it. 

Arrows  are  given  to  St.  Sebastian,  St.  Ursula,  and  St.  Christina, 
who  were  tortured  or  died  by  them. 

The  Cauldron,  signifying  torture,  is  given  to  St.  John  the  Evan- 
gelist and  St.  Cecilia. 

The  Cup  with  a  serpent  is  sometimes  given  to  St.  John  the  Evan- 
gelist, because  of  the  tradition  that  poison  was  once  offered 
him  in  a  cup,  from  which  he  expelled  the  poison  in  the  form 
of  a  serpent,  by  making  the  sign  of  the  cross. 

The  Wheel or  Wheels,  symbols  of  torture,  are  given  to  St.  Cather- 
ine of  Alexandria,  sometimes  to  St.  Christina. 

The  Skull  signifies  penance,  and  is  often  placed  beside  saints  in 
penitence. 


252  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

The  Palm  is  the  universal  symbol  of  victory  and  triumph. 

The  Olive  is  the  emblem  of  peace  and  reconciliation. 

The  Lily  is  the  emblem  of  purity,  and  is  often  seen  in  pictures  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  especially  in  annunciation  pictures,  where 
it  is  often  put  into  the  hand  of  the  angel  Gabriel  ;  it  is  also 
put  into  the  hand  of  St.  Joseph,  whose  rod,  according  to 
an  old  tradition,  blossomed  into  lilies  ;  also  it  is  found  in 
the  hand  of  St.  Dominick. 

The  Apple  is  an  emblem  of  the  fall  from  Paradise ;  when  in  the 
hand  of  the  Infant  Saviour,  it  signifies  redemption  from  sin. 

The  Pomegranate  is  the  symbol  of  a  happy  immortality. 

Roses  are  symbols  of  St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  St.  Cecilia,  and 
St.  Dorothea. 

The  three  archangels  most  frequently  represented  in  art 
are  Michael,  Gabriel,  and  Raphael. 

Michael  is  captain  of  the  Lord's  hosts,  is  usually  clad  in  armor, 
and  armed  with  a  sword  or  spear  ;  sometimes  he  bears 
scales. 

Gabriel  is  the  special  messenger  of  God,  and  so  is  the  angel  of 
the  annunciation,  when  he  often  bears  lilies. 

Raphael  is  the  medecin  of  God,  or  the  messenger  of  healing  ; 
sometimes  he  wears  sandals  and  bears  the  staff  and  gourd  of 
the  pilgrim  ;  as  guardian  angel  he  carries  a  sword  and  a  small 
casket  containing  a  charm  against  evil  spirits. 

In  early  Christian  art  the  symbols  of  the  four  evangelists 
are  as  follows : 

St.  Matthew,  the  cherub;  St.  Mark,  the  lion;  St.  Luke,  the  ox; 
St.  John,  the  eagle. 

After  the  sixth  century  it  became  usual  to  distinguish 
each  of  the  apostles  by  some  particular  emblem  borrowed 
from  some  circumstance  of  his  life  or  death,  thus  : 

St.  Andrew,  the  transverse  cross. 
St.  Peter,  the  keys,  sometimes  a  fish. 
St.  James  Major,  the  pilgrim's  staff. 


INFORMATION  FOR  STUDENTS  OF  PICTURES.     253 

St.  John,  the  cup  with  the  serpent,  or  the  eagle. 

St.  James  Minor,  a  club. 

St.  Thomas,  a  builder's  rule  ;  more  seldom,  a  spear. 

St.  Philip,  the  staff  or  crosier  ;  sometimes  a  small  cross  in  the 
hand. 

St.  Bartholomew,  a  large  knife. 

St.  Matthew,  a  purse. 

St.  Simon,  a  saw. 

Judas  Iscariot,  the  money  bag.  He  is  usually  represented  as 
distinct  in  some  way  from  the  rest  of  the  disciples,  is  some- 
times hideous,  and  often  deformed. 

St.  Paul  bears  the  sword,  sometimes  two  swords. 

St.  Mathias  has  as  an  attribute  the  lance  or  an  axe. 

The  four  great  Latin  fathers  who  enter  frequently  into 
devotional  pictures  are  St.  Jerome,  St.  Augustine,  St. 
Ambrose,  and  St.  Gregory. 

St.  Jerome  is  the  most  important  of  these  and  is  almost  always 
represented  in  one  of  three  ways,  —  as  patron  saint,  in  cardi- 
nal's robes,  or  with  a  cardinal's  hat  at  his  feet ;  as  a  trans- 
lator of  the  Scriptures,  with  an  open  book  in  his  hand  ;  as  a 
penitent,  half  naked  and  emaciated.  His  forehead  is  very 
high  and  his  beard  reaches  to  his  girdle.  A  lion  is  usually 
near  him  because  of  the  tradition  that  having  pulled  a  thorn 
from  the  foot  of  a  lion  it  followed  him  ever  afterward. 

St.  Attgustine  may  be  known  by  a  flaming  heart,  or  a  heart 
pierced,  to  express  the  ardor  of  his  piety  or  the  poignancy  of 
his  repentance,  but  these  are  not  often  used  when  he  is 
grouped  with  other  figures.  When  St.  Jerome  is  accompa- 
nied by  another  bishop  with  a  book  in  his  hand  and  no 
particular  attribute,  we  may  suppose  him  to  be  St.  Augustine. 

St.  Ambrose  is  most  often  represented  with  a  knotted  scourge  of 
three  thongs  in  his  hand,  sometimes  with  a  beehive  or  bees 
near  him. 

St.  Gregory  is  usually  accompanied  by  the  dove,  which  in  early 
pictures  is  close  to  his  ear. 


254  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS, 

A  few  other  important  saints  and  their  distinctive  em- 
blems are  as  follows.  A  full  account  of  the  legends  con- 
nected with  each  may  be  found  in  either  Mrs.  Jameson's 
or  Mrs.  Clement's  Legendary  Art. 

St.  Agnes  is  most  frequently  represented  as  accompanied  by  a 
lamb. 

St.  Anna  often  accompanies  the  Virgin  Mary  ;  she  is  placed  close 
beside  her,  sometimes  bearing  her  on  the  knees. 

St.  Anthony  of  Egypt,  usually  represented  as  undergoing  severe 
temptations,  wears  the  monk's  habit,  and  sometimes  carries 
a  bell  which  was  believed  to  overcome  demons. 

St.  Anthony  of  Padua  wears  the  brown  habit  and  cord  of  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi  ;  is  often  represented  as  receiving  a  vision 
of  the  Infant  Christ. 

St.  Barbara  is  special  patroness  of  the  church,  also  of  armorers 
and  gunsmiths  ;  she  often  bears  a  miniature  tower  with  three 
windows  ;  sometimes  the  palm  and  sword.  When  repre- 
sented as  patroness  of  gunsmiths,  small  cannons  are  some- 
times introduced. 

St.  Catherine  of  Alexandria,  the  bride  of  the  Infant  Saviour,  is 
often  pictured  as  receiving  a  ring  from  him,  and  is  richly 
dressed,  and  adorned  with  gems.  Her  special  attribute  is 
the  wheel,  sometimes  two  wheels,  instruments  of  her  mar- 
tyrdom. 

St.  Catherine  of  Sienna  is  usually  habited  as  a  nun,  and  bears  the 
stigmata.1 

St.  Cecilia  is  the  patroness  of  music.  Her  special  attribute  is  the 
organ  or  the  music  roll.  She  often  wears  a  crown  of  red 
and  white  roses,  and  is  usually  richly  dressed. 

St.  Christopher  (the  Christ-bearer)  carries  a  huge  staff  and  often 
has  the  Infant  Christ  on  his  shoulders. 

St.  Dominick  is  clad  in  the  habit  of  a  Dominican  monk,  often  has 
a  star  on  or  above  his  head,  and  carries  a  lily  branch  and  a 
book  ;  sometimes  a  dog  is  beside  him. 

1  Marks  of  wounds  on  hands  and  feet,  —  the  special  marks  of  Christ's 
crucifixion. 


INFORMATION  FOR  STUDENTS   OF  PICTURES.    255 

St.  Dorothea  has  roses  on  her  head  or  in  her  hands ;  sometimes 
either  she  or  an  attendant  carries  a  basket  containing  three 
roses  or  three  apples. 

St.  Elisabeth,  mother  of  John  the  Baptist,  is  frequently  introduced 
in  pictures  of  the  Madonna  and  Child  ;  is  represented  as  being 
of  matronly  age,  sometimes  aged,  and  her  head  is  usually 
coifed. 

St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary  has  roses  as  an  attribute  and  is  usually 
represented  as  performing  some  deed  of  mercy. 

St.  Francis  of  Assist  is  clad  in  the  brown  habit  and  cord  of  the 
Franciscan  monk  and  is  known  by  the  stigmata. 

St.  George  is  a  military  saint ;  is  clad  in  armor,  and  is  often  repre- 
sented as  slaying  a  dragon.  . 

St.  Helena,  the  mother  of  Emperor  Constantine,  is  known  by  her 
attribute,  the  cross. 

St.  Joachim,  father  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  is  found  in  early  pictures 
in  company  with  St.  Anna. 

St.  John  Baptist,  the  herald  of  Christ,  appears  often  as  the  infant 
companion  of  Jesus ;  as  a  man,  he  is  pictured  clad  in  goat- 
skin, gaunt  and  wasted,  and  usually  bears  a  cross,  sometimes 
a  cup. 

St.  Joseph,  husband  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  is  often  seen  in  Holy 
Families,  where  he  is  represented  as  of  middle  age,  sometimes 
aged ;  his  chief  attribute  is  the  rod  which  bears  lilies. 

St.  Laurence  is  usually  clad  in  the  rich  dress  of  an  archdeacon, 
bearing  a  palm,  and  a  gridiron,  the  instrument  of  his  martyr- 
dom ;  sometimes  the  gridiron  is  embroidered  on  his  robe, 
sometimes  suspended  from  his  neck  or  placed  under  his  feet. 

St.  Lucia  is  protectress  against  diseases  of  the  eye  ;  her  attributes 
are  a  light  and  two  eyes  borne  on  a  platter. 

St.  Luke  is  the  patron  saint  of  artists  ;  is  often  represented  as 
painting  the  Virgin  Mary. 

St.  Margaret  is  the  type  of  maiden  innocence  ;  is  often  repre- 
sented as  holding  the  palm  of  victory  and  treading  lightly 
upon  the  dragon,  which  represents  evil. 

St.  Martin  is  often  represented  with  a  naked  beggar  at  his  feet 
with  whom  he  is  dividing  his  cloak. 


256  THE   WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

St.  Mary  of  Egypt  is  usually  worn  and  wasted  and  always  has 
long  hair  that  wraps  her  like  a  garment. 

St.  Mary  Magdalene  is  the  patron  saint  of  penitent  women ;  her 
special  attribute  is  the  jar  of  ointment ;  she  is  usually  repre 
sented  with  luxuriant  golden  hair. 

St.  Monica,  the  mother  of  St.  Augustine,  appears  in  many  of  the 
pictures  that  illustrate  his  life.  Her  dress  is  a  black  robe 
with  veil,  or  coif,  of  white  or  gray. 

St.  Nicholas  of  Bar i  is  the  patron  saint  of  children,  sailors,  and 
travellers.  He  wears  the  bishop's  dress,  very  much  orna- 
mented. His  special  attribute  is  three  balls. 

St.  Nicholas  of  Tolentino  is  often  represented  as  working  mira- 
cles. He  is  clad  in  the  black  habit  of  an  Augustine  monk, 
has  a  star  on  his  breast,  and  often  bears  a  crucifix  wreathed 
with  lilies. 

St.  Ottilia  is  protectress  of  all  who  suffer  with  diseases  of  the  eye  ; 
is  clad  in  the  black  robe  of  a  Benedictine  nun,  and  often  bears 
two  eyes  on  a  book. 

St.  Roch  is  the  patron  saint  of  prisoners  and  of  sufferers  in  hospi- 
tals ;  is  dressed  as  a  pilgrim.  He  often  points  to  a  plague 
spot  on  his  side  or  lifts  his  robe  to  show  it ;  is  usually 
accompanied  by  a  dog. 

St.  Sebastian  is  young  and  beautiful,  naked,  bound  to  a  tree,  and 
pierced  by  arrows. 

The  Sibyls  are  prophetesses  who  foretold  the  coming  of  Christ  to 
the  Gentile  world.  They  are  usually  designated  by  scrolls. 

St.  Stephen  is  generally  represented  in  the  dress  of  a  deacon,  with 
the  palm  of  victory,  and  stones,  emblematic  of  his  martyrdom. 

St.  Ursula  is  the  patron  saint  of  maidens,  particularly  of  school- 
girls and  of  teachers  of  girls.  Her  attributes  are  the  crown  of 
the  princess,  the  pilgrim's  staff,  the  arrow,  and  the  banner  with 
red  cross.  She  is  often  represented  as  spreading  her  mantle 
over  maidens. 

St.  Veronica  holds  the  napkin  on  which  is  the  likeness  of  the 
Saviour. 


INFORMATION  FOR  STUDENTS  OF  PICTURES.    257 

TECHNICAL   TERMS    USED    IN    PAINTING. 

Accessories.     Any  objects  not  belonging  to  the  main  subject  of  a 

picture. 
Accident.     A  special  condition  or  aspect  of  an  object  or  collection 

of  objects  as  distinguished  from  a  general  condition  or  aspect 

of  the  same. 
Aerial  perspective.     The  art  of   giving   due  diminution  to  the 

strength  of  light,  shade,  and  colors  of  objects  according  to 

their  distances  and   the  mediums  through  which   they  are 

seen. 
Antique.     A  term  applied  to  the  remains  of  the  works  of  ancient 

Greek  and  Roman  artists. 
Aquarelle.     Transparent  water-color  painting  without  -the  use  of 

any  body  color. 
Body  color.     Opaque  color,  often  produced   by  the  mixture  of 

Chinese  white  with  transparent  colors.     It  hides  the  texture 

of  the  paper.     A  term  used  in  water-color  painting. 
Breadth.     Effect  resulting  from  the  general  treatment  of  a  subject, 

in  which  details,   light,  shade,   and   harmonious   colors  are 

subordinated  by  grouping  them  in  masses,  thus  producing 

simplicity. 
Cartoon.     A  design  upon  paper,  drawn  by  an  artist,  from  which 

his  work  is  to  be  executed. 
Cast  shadow.     The  shadow  thrown  on  a  surface  by  some  object 

that  is  interposed  between  it  and  the  light. 
\Chiaroscuro  (ki-aKos-cu'ro).     The  art  of  distributing  the—lights 

and  shades  of  apicture, — 

Classic.     Conforming  to  the  best  art  of  Greece  and  Rome. 
(  Composition.     The  arrangement  of  the  various  elements  of  a  pic- 
ture.    The  term  also  includes  the  invention,  or  the  original 

thought  of  a  picture. 
Dead  coloring.     The  preparatory  painting,  cold  and  pale,  used  by 

some  artists,  on  which  are  placed  the  finishing  colors  that 

give  life  and  beauty  to  the  picture. 
Design.     The  outline  or  main  features  —  the  plan  of  a  picture. 


258  THE  WORLD 'S  PAINTERS. 

Dragging.  The  process  of  drawing  a  brush  charged  or  filled  with 
thick,  opaque  color  heavily  and  quickly  over  the  painting. 

Finish.     Expression  of  detail  without  sacrificing  breadth. 

Foreshortening.  The  apparent  diminution  of  the  length  of  an 
object  in  proportion  as  the  direction  of  its  length  coincides 
with  the  direction  of  the  visual  ray. 

Glazing.  Putting  a  transparent  color  over  other  colors,  either  to 
increase  or  decrease  their  brilliancy  without  changing  the 
effect  of  light  and  shade. 

Handling.  The  method  of  using  the  materials  employed  in  paint- 
ing. It  sometimes  refers  to  mere  manipulation,  sometimes 
to  the  composition,  as  the  "  handling  of  a  subject." 

Harmony.  The  effect  of  the  proper  arrangement  of  forms,  lights, 
and  colors  in  a  picture. 

Hatching  or  Crosshatching.  The  use  of  the  brush  or  pencil  so 
as  to  make  lines  that  cross  each  other  at  regular  intervals  and 
cover  a  part  of  the  ground. 

Impasto.  The  thickness  of  the  layer  or  body  of  pigment  applied 
to  the  canvas. 

In  keeping.  The  proper  subserviency  of  tone  and  color  in  every 
part  of  the  picture. 

Lay-figure.  A  jointed  wooden  image  on  which  the  artist  may  put 
his  costumes  or  draperies  so  as  to  study  their  effect. 

Light.  The  illuminated  portion  of  an  object  that  gives  direct 
reflection.  High  light  is  that  small  portion  of  the  light  sur- 
face which  receives  the  illuminating  rays  at  right  angles  and 
which,  when  moistened,  glitters.  Reflected  light  is  the  par- 
tial illumination  of  shade  caused  by  reflection  from  some 
lighter  object  near  it. 

Local  color.  The  true  color,  unaffected  by  light,  shade,  distance, 
or  reflection. 

Mannerism.     Any  peculiar  method  of  work  carried  to  excess. 

Medium.  The  material  with  which  an  artist  executes  his  work, 
—  that  which  carries  his  color. 

Monochrome.     Of  one  color. 

Motive  (French  motif).  That  which  inspires  the  conception  of 
a  picture. 


INFORMATION  FOR  STUDENTS   OF  PICTURES.    259 

^erspective.  _  The  art  of  making  such  a  representation  of  an 
object  on  a  plane  surface  as  shall  present  the  same  appear- 
ance that  the  object  itself  would  present  to  the  eye  when 
seen  from  a  particular  point ;  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  drawing 
things  as  they  appear,  not  as  they  are. 

Relief.  The  apparent  projection  of  an  object  from  the  plane  surface. 

Romantic.  Essentially  opposed  to  the  classic.  Pertaining  to  the 
popular  style  of  thought  of  the  Middle  Ages.  That  which 
portrays  much  feeling  and  is  dramatic. 

Scumbling.  The  process  of  passing  a  thin  film  of  opaque  color 
in  a  nearly  dry  condition  over  other  color,  so  as  not  to  cover 
it  completely. 

Shade.     The  opposite  of  Light. 

Stippling.  The  process  of  making  a  series  of  small  touches, 
strokes,  or  dots,  so  as  to  obtain  evenness  of  surface,  grada- 
tion of  shade,  or  intensity  of  shadow.  It  is  a  method  of 
handling  that  has  been  much  used  by  some  English  water- 
colorists. 

Style.  The  treatment  of  the  subject  of  a  composition ;  also  its 
handling. 

Technique.     Method  of  execution. 

Texture.     Imitation  of  the  surface  of  an  object. 

Tone.     The  agreement  of  lights  and  darks  and  color  quantities. 

Values.  The  relationships  of  lights  and  darks  and  color  intensi- 
ties throughout  a  picture. 

Vehicle.  Any  liquid  used  to  dilute  colors  so  as  to  render  them  of 
a  proper  consistence  for  use. 


WHERE    TO    FIND    SOME    OLD   PICTURES  WHICH   ARE 
FAMILIAR  THROUGH   FREQUENT  REPRODUCTION. 

"j'Esop."     Velasquez.     Madrid  Museum. 

"^Agp  nf  Tnnncence."     Sir  Toshna  Reynolds.     National  Gallery, 

^London. 

'^Allegory  of  Spring."     Botticelli.     Academy,  Florence. 
\  "  Angel-Group  dancing  in  Paradise  "  (detail  of  "  LasTJudgment*'). 
Fra  Angelico.     Academy,  Florence. 


260  THE    WORLDS  PAINTERS. 

"  Angel  of  Annunciation."    Carlo  Dolci.     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
Y" Angels  playing  on  Musical  Instruments"  (painted  on  frame  of 

"Madonna   and   Child").      Fra  Angelico.      Uffizi    Gallery, 

Florence. 
"  Angel  with  Lute  "  (detail  of  "  Madonna  ").     Fra  Bartolommeo. 

Cathedral,  Lucca. 
V  "  Annunciation."      Fra    Angelico.      Museum    of    San    Mareef 

Florence. 

"  Apollo  and  the  Muses."    Julio  Romano.  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"Assumption  of  the  Virgin."     Titian.     Academy,  Venice. 
"  Aurora."     Guido  Reni.     Rospigliosi  Palace,  Rome. 
"  Bacchus  and  Ariadne."     Tintoretto.     Ducal  Palace,  Venice. 
"  Beatrice  Cenci."  _  Guido  Reni  ?     Barberini  Gallery,  Rome. 
"  Cartoons  for  Tapestries  "  (Scenes  in  New  Testament  History). 

Raphael.     South  Kensington  Museum,  London. 
"Children  of  Charles    I."      Van   Dyck.      Dresden,    Berlin,  and 

Turin  Galleries,  and  Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Concert  of  Musicians."    'Attributed  to  Giorgione.     Pitti  Gallery, 

Florence. 

"  Coronation  of  the  Virgin."     Botticelli.     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Cupids  sharpening  Arrows  "  (detail  of  the  "  Danae  ").   Correggio. 

Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 
"Decorative  Angels  playing  on  Musical  Instruments."     Melozzo 

da  FoTlT     Sacristy  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome. 
"  Descent  from  the  Cross."     Rubens.     Cathedral,  Antwerp. 
"  Divine  Shepherd."     Murillo.     Madrid  Museum. 
"  FJghting  Temeraire."     Turner.     National  Gallery,  London. 
"  Flora."     Titian.'    Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"Gleaners."     Millet.    Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Head  of  Christ "  (a  study  for  the  Christ  in  "  Last  Supper "). 

Leonardo  da  Vinci.     Brera  Gallery,  Milan. 
"  Holy  Family."     Murillo.     Louvre,  Paris. 
"Immaculate  Conception."     Murillo.     Louvre,  Paris, 
"^nfanta  Marguerite."     Velasquez.     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  La  Belle  Jardiniere."     Raphael.     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  LaTDonna  Bella."     Titian.     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  La  Donna  Velata."     Raphael.     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 


INFORMATION  FOR  STUDENTS  OF  PICTURES.     261 

"  La  Fornarina."     Raphael.     Barberini  Gallery,  Rojne. 

"  Last  Communion  of  St.  Jerome."     Domenichino.     Vatican  GaL 

lery,  Rome. 
"Last  Judgment."     Michael  Angelo.     Sistine  Chapel  of  Vatican, 

_Rpme. 
"_Last   Supper."     Leonardo   da   Vinci. Monastery,    St.    Maria 

-delle  Grazie,  Milan. 
"  Madame  Le  Brun  and  Daughter."    Madame  Le  Brun.     Louvre, 

Paris. 

"  Madonna  and  Child  with  St.  John."     Botticelli.     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Mjidpnna  del  Cardellino."     Raphael^    Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Madonna  del  Gran  Duca."     Raphael.     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Madonna  della  Sedia."     Raphael.     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Madonna  di  San  Sisto."     Raphael.     Dresden  Gallery. 
"  Madonna  ot  Burgomaster  Meyer."     Holbein.     Museum,  Darm- 
stadt^   (A  copy  is  in  Dresden  Gallery.T " 
"  Madonna  of  Murillo."     Murillo.     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Madonna  of  the  Sack."     Andrea  del  Sarto.     SS.  Annunziata, 

Florence. 

"  Magnificat."     Botticelli.     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine."     Correggio.     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine."     Titian.     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Mater  Dolorosa."    Carlo  Dolci.     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Miracle  of  the  Slave."     Tintoretto.     Academy,  Venice. 
'^Mona  Lisa."     Leonardo  da  Vinci.     Louvre,  Paris. 
"-Night-Guard."     Rembrandt.     Museum,  Amsterdam. 
"Philosophers."     Rembrandt.     Louvre,  Paris. 
"  Portrait  of  Angelica  Kauffmann."    Angelica  Kauffmann.     Uffizi 

Gallery,  Florence. 
X"  Pjortrait  of  Dante."    Usually  attributed  to  Giotto.    The  Bargello, 

FJorence. 
"  Portrait  of  Mrs.  Siddons."     Gainsborough.     National  Gallery, 

London. 

"  Portrait  of  Saskia  "  (Rembrandt's  wife).     Dresden  Gallery. 
"  Reading  Magdalen."     Painter  unknown.      Formerly  attributed 

to  Correggio.     Dresden  Gallery. 
"  Sacreji  and  Profane  Love."     Titian.     Borghese  Gallery,  Rome. 


262  THE    WORLD'S  PAINTERS. 

"  Samian  Sibyl."     Guercino.     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

"J>anta  Nptte."     Correggio.     Dresden  Gallery. 

"Bleeping  Venus."     Giorgione.     Dresden  Gallery. 

"  St.  Agnes  with  the  Lamb."    Andrea  del  Sarto.    Cathedral,  Pisa. 

"St.  Anthony  of  Padua  with  Infant  Christ."     Murillo.     Museum, 

Berlin. 
"  St.  Augustine   and  his   Mother,  St.  Monica."     Ary   Scheffer. 

Louvre,  Paris. 

"  St.  Barbara."     Palma  Vecchio.     Santa  Maria  Formosa,  Venice. 
"  St.  Cecilia."     Hubert  Van  Eyck.     Museum,  Berlin. 
"  St.  Cecilia."     Raphael.     Bologna  gallery, 
'ijit^ John   the   Baptist."      Andrea   del   Sarto.       Pitti   Gallery, 

Florence. 
"  St.    Mary   of   Egypt."      Ribera  (Lo    Spagnoletto).       Dresden 

Gallery. 
"  St.   Michael  and  the  Dragon."     Guido  Reni.     Church  of  the 

Capuccini,  Rome. 
"  Stuart  Baby"  (detail  of  "  Children  of  Charles  I,"  by  Van  Dyck, 

in_  Turin  Gallery).     A  copy  by  Canevari.     St.  Luke's  Acad- 
emy, Rome. 
".Studies   of  Angels'  Heads/;     Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.     National 

Gallery,  London. 

"  Syndics."  Rembrandt.  Museum,  Amsterdam. 
"  The  Broken  Pitcher!" Greuze.  Louvre,  Pans. 
"  Three  Fates."  Drawn  by  Michael  Angela  Probably  painted 

by  Rosso  Fiorentino.     Pitti  Gallery,  Florence. 
"  Transfiguration."     Raphael.     Vatican  Gallery  Rome. 
"  Woman  at  Toilet."     Titian-     T.pnvre,  Paris. 
"  Venus."     Botticelli.     Berlin  Museum. 
"  Vestal  Virgin."     Angelica  Kauffmann.     Dresden  Gallery. 
"  Visitation/'     AlbertinellL_  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 


INDEX   OF    ARTISTS   WITH    PRONUNCIATION 
OF   FOREIGN   NAMES. 


Note.  —  In  the  following  index  those  pages  only  are  given  on  which  important 
mention  of  the  several  artists  is  made,  since  a  number  of  pages,  many  of  which 
contain  merely  casual  mention  of  names,  serves  to  hinder  rather  than  to  assist  the 
reader. 


Abbey,  Edwin  A.,  247. 
Achenbach,    Oswald   (a'ken-bak), 

225. 

Aelst,  Willem  van  (alst),  206. 
Albani,    Francesco  (al-ba'ne),   21, 

'25- 
Albertinelli,     Mariotto    (al-ber-te- 

nelle),  20,  54. 
Allori,    Cristofano    (al-lo're),    21, 

126. 

Allston,  Washington,  244. 
Alma-Tadema,  Laurenz  (al'ma-ta- 

da'ma),  188. 

Altdorfer,  Albert  (alt'dor-fer),  213. 
Andrea  da    Firenze    (an-dra'a   da 

fe-ran'za),  19,  28. 
Angelico,    Fra   (Giovanni  Guido) 

(fra  an-jzHe-ko),  19,  30. 
Antiphilus  (an-tif'i-lus),  10. 
Apelles  of  Cos  (a-pel'ez),  7. 
Apelles  of  Ephesus,  10. 
Apollodorus  (a-pol-o-do'rus),  5. 
Aretino,  Spinello  (a-ra-te'no),  19, 

29. 
Aubert,  Ernest  Jean  (ofber'),  154. 


Backhuysen,  Ludolf  (bak-hoi'zen), 

205. 
Baldung,  Hans(Grien)(bal'doong), 

213. 
Baroccio,   Frederigo    (ba-rot'cho), 

127. 

Barry,  James,  232. 
Bartolommeo,   Fra   (Baccio  della 

Porta)  (ba-to-lom-ma'o),  20,  52. 
Bassano,  Jacopo  (bas-sa'no),  103. 
Bastien-Lepage,  Jules  (bas'te-aN'- 

le-pazh'),  156. 

Baudry,  Paul  (bo'dre'),  156. 
Beccafumi,  Domenico  (bek-a-foo'- 

me),  68. 

Becerra,  Caspar  (ba-therra),  159. 
Becker,  Carl,  225. 
Beckwith,  J.  Carroll,  248. 
Bega,  Cornelius  (ba'ga),  201. 
Beham,  Barthel  (ba'am),  214. 
Beham,  Sebald,  214. 
Bellini,     Gentile     (bel-le'ne),     20, 

86. 

Bellini,  Giovanni,  20,  87. 
Bellini,  Jacopo,  20,  86. 


263 


264 


INDEX   OF  ARTISTS 


Beltraffio,  Giovanni  Antonio  (bel- 

traf'fe-o),  114. 
Benjamin-Constant,    J.   J.    (koN'- 

stoN'),  150. 

Benson,  Frank  W.,  248. 
Beraud,  Jean  (ba'ro'),  156. 
Berchem,  Nicholas  (ber'kem),  205. 
Berruguette,   Alonzo   (ber-roo-ga'- 

ta),  159. 

Berruguette,  Pedro,  159. 
Bertin,  Jean  Victor  (ber'taN'),  147. 
Besnard,  Paul   Albert  (bes'naa'), 

156. 
Bianchi,  Francesco  (be-an'ke),  20, 

107. 

Bierstadt,  Albert,  245. 
Bissolo,  Francesco  (bes-solo),  91. 
Blake,  William,  233. 
Blashfield,  Edwin  H.,  247. 
Blondeel,  Lancelot  (bloN'del),  179. 
Bodenhausen,    C.    von    (bo'-den- 

how'zen),  224. 
Boel,  Pieter  (bool),  188. 
Bol,  Ferdinand,  194. 
Boldini,  Giuseppe  (bol-de'ne),  131. 
Bonheur,  Auguste  (bo'nuR'),  152. 
Bonheur,  Rosa,  152. 
Bonifazio,    I   (Veronese)    (bo-ne- 

fat'se-o),  103. 
Bonifazio,  II,  103. 
Bonifazio,  III  (Veneziano),  103. 
Bonnat,  Leon  J.  F.  (bon'na'),  156. 
Bordone,  Paris  (bor-do'na),  103. 
Borgognone,  Ambrogio  (bor-gon- 

yo'na),  20,  114. 
Bosboom,  J.,  206. 
Both,  Jan  (bot),  205. 
Botticelli,    Sandro   (bot-e-chel'le), 

20,  38. 

Boucher,  Fran9ois  (boo'sha'),  139. 
Boughton,  George  W.,  239. 


Bouguereau,   W.   Adolphe   (boo'- 

gair'o'),  156. 
Boulanger,  Gustav  (booloN'zha'), 

150. 
Bourdichon,  Jean  (boor'de'shoN'), 

133- 
Bourdon,    Sebastian   (boor'doN'), 

138. 

Bradford,  William  T.,  245. 
Bramantino    (bra-man-te'no),    20, 

114. 
Breton,  Jules  Adolphe  (breh'toN'), 

154. 

Breughel,  Jan  (bruh'gel'),  180. 
Breughel,  Pieter  (The  Elder),  180. 
Breughel,   Pieter  (The  Younger), 

1 80. 

Bridgman,  Frederick,  247. 
Brill,  Matthew  and  Paul,  180. 
Brouwer,  Adrian  (brow'wer),  188. 
Brown,  Ford  Madox,  238. 
Brown,  George  L.,  245. 
Burgkmair,  Hans  (boork'mir),  218. 
Burgkmair,  Thomas,  218. 
Burne-Jones,  Sir  Edward,  239. 
Butin,  Louis  (bii'taN'),  156. 
Butler,  Elizabeth  Thompson,  240. 

Cabanel,   Alexandre    (ka'ba'nel'), 

156. 

Callcott,  Sir  Augustus,  234. 
Cano,  Alonzo  (ka'no),  165. 
Caravaggio,  Michaelangelo  Ameri- 

ghi  da  (ka-ra-vad'jo),  21,  128. 
Carolus-Duran,  Charles  Auguste 

fimil  (kar'o-lus'-dii'raN'),  156. 
Carpaccio,   Vittore   (kar-pat'cho), 

20,  90. 

Carracci,    Agostino    (kar-rat'che), 

21,  122. 

Carracci,  Annibale,  21,  122. 


WITH  PRONUNCIATION  OF  FOREIGN  NAMES.     265 


Carracci,  Ludovico,  21,  122. 
Castagno,  Andrea  del  (kas-tan'yo), 

19-  32- 
Catena,   Vincenzo   di  Biagio  (ka- 

ta'na),  91. 
Cerquozzi,  Michael  Angelo  (cher- 

kwot'se),  131. 
Cespedes,  Pablo  de  (thas'pa-des), 

164. 
C  hampaigne,  Philip  de(shoN  'paN '), 

137- 

Champney,  J.  Wells,  248. 
Chardin,  Jean  Baptiste  (shar'daN'), 

139- 

Chase,  William,  248. 
Chavannes,    Puvis   de  (sha'van'), 

156. 

Christus,  Pieter,  172. 
Church,  Frederic  Edwin,  245. 
Cigoli,   Ludovico   Cardi  da  (che- 

gole),  127. 

Cimabue  (che-ma-boo'a),  19,  22. 
Cima  da  Conegliano  (che'ma),  20, 

90. 

Cimon  of  Cleonae,  3. 
Clouet,  Jean  and  Francois(kloo'a'), 

134- 
Coello,  Alonzo  Sanchez  (ko-al'yo), 

1 60. 

Cole,  Thomas,  245. 
Coleman,  Samuel,  245. 
Constable,  John,  234. 
Copley,  John  Singleton,  241. 
Coques,  Gonzales  (kok),  188. 
Cornelius,    Peter    von    (kor-naHe- 

oos),  222,  223. 
Corot,  J.  Baptiste  Camille  (ko'ro'), 

148,  150. 
Correggio,    Antonio     Allegri     da 

(kor-red'jo),  20,  109. 
Cosimo,  Piero  di  (kos'e-mo),  20, 44. 


Cossa,  Francesco,  20,  106. 
Costa,  Lorenzo,  20,  106. 
Courbet,  Gustav  (koor'ba'),  153. 
Cousin,  Jean  (koo'zaN'),  134. 
Couture,  Thomas  (koo'tiir'),  156. 
Cox,  Kenyon,  248. 
Craeyer,  Caspar  de  (kri'yer),  183. 
Cranach,  Lucas  (The  Elder)  (kran'- 

ak),  215. 
Cranach,    Lucas  (The  Younger), 

216. 

Credi,  Lorenzo  di  (kra'de),  20,  47. 
Crivelli,  Carlo  (kre-veMe),  20,  85. 
Crome,  John  (Old  Crome),  234. 
Cuyp,  Aelbert  (koip),  204. 

Daubigny,  Charles  Fra^ois  (do'- 

ben'ye')>  148,  152. 
David,  Gheerardt  (da'vet),  176. 
David,  Jacques   Louis    (da'ved'), 

142. 
Decamps,  Alexander  Gabriel  (deh- 

koN'),  148,  149. 
Defregger,   Franz    von    (fon    da'- 

frek'-er),  224. 

De  Haas,  M.  F.  H.  (deh-has'),  245. 
Delacroix,  F.  Victor  Eugene  (deh- 

la'krwa'),  148. 
Delaroche,   Paul  Hippolyte  (deh- 

la'rosh'),  146. 
Denner,  Balthasar,  222. 
Detaille,  fidouard  (da'ta'el),  156. 
Diaz  de  la  Pena  (Narcisso  Virgilio) 

(de'ath),  148,  151. 
Diepenbeck,  Abraham   van   (def- 

pen-bek'),  184. 

Dietrich,  Christian  (de'trik),  222. 
Dolci,  Carlo  (dol'che),  21,  127. 
Domenichino   (Domenico   Zampi- 

eri)  (do-men-e-ke'no),  21,  122. 
Dore,  Gustav  (do'ra'),  156. 


266 


INDEX  OF  ARTISTS 


Dossi,  Dosso  (dos'se),  28,  108. 

Dou,  Gerard,  196. 

Duccio  (of  Sienna)  (doot'cho),  19, 

62. 

Duez,  Ernest  (dii'a'),  156. 
Dupre,  Jules  (dii'pra'),  148,  151. 
Diirer,  Albert  (dii'rer),  210. 

Echion  (e-ki'on),  12. 

Eckhout,  Gerbrandt  van  der  (ak'- 

howt),  195. 

Elliott,  Charles  Loring,  243. 
Elzheimer,     Adam     (elts'hi-mer), 

222. 

Engelbrechsten,  Cornells  (eng'hel- 

brekt'sen),  179. 
Etty,  William,  233. 
Eyck,  Hubert  van  (van  ik),  169. 
Eyck,  John  van,  169. 

Faber,  Carl  (Fabritius),  195. 
Fabriano,  Gentile  da  (fa-bre-a'no), 

20,  69. 
Ferrari,  Gaudenzio  (fer-ra're),  20, 

118. 

Fielding,  Anthony,  235. 
Flinck,  Govaert,  194. 
Floris,  Franz,  179. 
Foppa,  Vincenzo,  20,  113. 
Forli,  Melozzo  da,  20,  70. 
Fortuny,  Mariano  (for-too'ne),  168. 
Fouquet,  Jean  (foo'ka'),  133. 
Fragonard,  Jean  Honore  (fra'go'- 

nar'),  140. 
Francesca,  Piero  della  (fran-ches'- 

ka),  20,  69. 
Francia     (Francesco     Raibolini) 

(fran'cha),  20,  119. 
Franciabigio  (Francesco  di  Bigi) 

(fran-cha-be'jo),  60. 
Freminet,  Martin  (fra'me'na'),  134. 


Frere,  Charles  Theodore,  150. 
Fromentin,  Eugene  (fro'moN'taN'), 

148,  149. 

Fuller,  George,  243. 
Fuseli,  Henry  (fu'ze-le),  232. 
Fyt,  Jan  (fit),  188. 

Gaddi,  Agnolo  (gad'de),  28. 
Gaddi,  Taddeo,  19,  27. 
Gainsborough,  Thomas,  230. 
Garofalo  (Benvenuto  Tisi)  (ga-ro'- 

fa-lo),  20,  1 08. 
Gay,  Walter,  247. 
Gericault,  Jean  Louis  (zha're-ko'), 

147. 
Gerome,    Jean    Leon   (zha'rom'), 

150,  154. 
Ghirlandajo,    Domenico   (ger-lan- 

da'yo),  20,  41. 
Ghirlandajo,  Ridolfo,  61. 
Gianpietrino    (Giovanni    Pedrini) 

(jan-pe-a-tre'no),  118. 
Gifford,  R.  Swain,  245. 
Giordano,  Luca  (jor-da'no),  131. 
Giorgione  (Giorgio  Barbarelli)  (jor- 

jo'na),  20,  92. 
Giotto  di  Bondone  (jot'to  de  bon- 

do'na),  19,  23. 
Gossaert,  Jan  (Mabuse)  (gos'sart'), 

178. 

Goya,  Francisco  (go'ya),  168. 
Goyen,  Jan  van  (van  goi'en),  201. 
Gozzoli,    Benozzo   (got'so-le),  20, 

37- 
Grandi,  Ercole  di  Giulio  (gran'de), 

107. 

Grandi,  Roberti  de',  106. 
Greuze,  Jean  Baptiste  (grurz),  140. 
Gros,  Antoine  Jean  (gro),  144. 
Griinewald,  Matthias  (grii'ne-valt), 

214. 


WITH  PRONUNCIA  TION  OF  FOREIGN  NAMES.     267 


Guercino     (Giovanni     Francesco 

Barbieri)  (gwer-che'no),  21,125. 

Guido  da  Sienna  (gwe'do),  19,  62. 

Guido  Reni  (gwe'do  ra'ne),  21, 123. 

Hals,  Franz  (The  Younger)  (hals), 

190. 

Hamon,  Jean  Louis  (a'moN'),  154. 
Harding,  Chester,  243. 
Hassam,  Childe,  248. 
Healy,  George,  243. 
Heem,  Cornelis  de  (deh  ham),  206. 
Heem,  Jan  David  de,  206. 
Heist,  Bartholomew  van  der,  195. 
Herkomer,  Hubert,  240. 
Herlen,  Frederick,  217. 
Herrera,   Francisco   de  (er-ra'ra), 

165. 

Herring,  John  F.,  237. 
Hobbema,  Meindert  (hob'be-ma), 

203. 

Hofmann,  Heinrich,  224. 
Hogarth,  William,  228. 
Holbein,  Hans  (The  Elder)  (hol'- 

bm),  217. 
Holbein,    Hans   (The    Younger), 

219. 

Holl,  Frank,  239. 
Homer,  Winslow,  248. 
Hooghe,  Pieter  -de  (deh  ho'geh), 

199. 
Hoogstraten,    Samuel    van    (van 

hog'stra'ten),  195. 
Hunt,  Holman,  237. 
Hunt,  William  Morris,  245. 
Huysum,  Jan  van  (van  hoi'sum), 

206. 

Ingres,  Jean  Dominique  Auguste 

(angr),  145. 
Inman,  Henry,  243. 


Inness,  George,  245. 
Israels,  Josef  (iz'ra-els),  206. 

Jacque,  Charles  fimile  (zhak),  1 52. 
Jarvis,  John  Wesley,  243. 
Joanes,  Vincente  (Juan  de)  (ho-a'- 

nes),  162. 

Johnson,  Eastman,  248. 
Jordaens,  Jacob  (yor'dans),  186. 
Jouvenet,  Jean  (zhoov'na'),  138. 

Kalf,  William,  206. 

Kauffmann,  Maria  Angelica  (kowf'- 

man),  222. 
Kaulbach,    Wilhelm    von   (kowl'- 

bak),  224. 

Kensett,  John  F.,  245. 
Knaus,  Ludwig  (nows),  225. 
Kneller,  Sir  Godfrey  (neller),  227. 
Koekkoek,    Barent    (kook'kook), 

206. 

Koekkoek,  Gabriel,  206. 
Kraaft,  Peter,  226. 
Kulmbach,  Hans  von  (fon  koolm'- 

bak),  212. 

Laer,  Pieter  van  (van  lar),  201. 
La  Farge,  John  (lar  farzh),  248. 
Landseer,  Charles,  236. 
Landseer,  Sir  Edwin,  236. 
Lanfranco,  Giovanni  (lan-fran'ko), 

21,  127. 
Largilliere,  Nicholas  de  (lar'zhel'- 

yeair'),  137. 

Laurens,  J.  P.  (16'roN'),  156. 
Lawrence,  Sir  Thomas,  232. 
Le  Brun,  Charles  (leh-bruN'),  138. 
Le  Brun,  Madame  Vigee-,  147. 
Legros,  Alphonse  (leh-gro'),  154. 
Leighton,  Sir  Frederick,  239, 
Lely,  Sir  Peter,  227. 


268 


INDEX  OF  ARTISTS 


Lemoine,     Franfois    (leh-mwan'), 

139- 

Lenbach,  Franz  (len'-bak'),  224. 
Lerolle,  Henri,  154. 
Leslie,  Charles  Robert,  235. 
Lessing,  Carl,  224. 
Le   Sueur,   Eustache  (leh-sii'ur'), 

137- 

Leutze,  Emanuel  (loit'seh),  244. 
Leyden,  Lucas   van    (van  li'den) 

179. 

Leys,  Jean  Auguste  (Us),  188. 
L'hermitte,  Leon   Augustin    (ler'- 

met')  154. 

Lippi,  Filippino  (lep'pe),  20,  42. 
Lippi,  Fra  Filippo,  20,  38. 
Lissandrino      (Allessandro     Ma- 

gnasco)  (les-san-dre'no),  131. 
Lochner,  Stephan  (lok'ner),  208. 
Longhi,  Pietro  (lon'ge),  21,  104. 
Lorenzetti,  Ambrogio  (lo-ren-zet'- 

te),  19,  64. 

Lorenzetti,  Pietro,  19,  64. 
Lorraine,  Claude  (Gillee),  136. 
Lotto,  Lorenzo,  20,  98. 
Loucret,  Nicholas  (loo'kra'),  139. 
Luini,   Bernardino   (loo-e'ne),  21, 

116. 

Maas,  Nicholas  (mas),  200. 
Mabuse  (Gossaert,  Jan)  (ma'buz'), 

178. 
Madrazo,   Raimundo  de   (da  ma- 

dra'tho),  168. 

Makart,  Hans  (ma'karf),  226. 
Malbone,  Edward,  243. 
Manet,  fidouard  (ma'na'),  156. 
Mansueti,   Giovanni    (man-soo-a'- 

te),  91. 
Mantegna,    Andrea   (man-tan'ya), 

20,  81. 


Marcke,  fimile  van,  152. 
Margaritone  (mar'gar-e-to'na),  22. 
Marilhat,  Prosper  (mar'ela'),  150. 
Maris,  James  (mar'es),  206. 
Maris,  William,  206. 
Martini,   Simone   (mar-te'ne),   19, 

64. 
Masaccio,  Tommaso  (ma-sat'cho), 

20,  35. 

Masolino,  Tommaso  Fini  (ma-so- 
le'no),  20,  34. 
Master    of    Lyversberg    Passion, 

209. 

Matsys,  Quentin,  176. 
Matteo  da  Sienna  (mat-ta'o),  65. 
Mauve,  Anton  (mov'e),  206. 
Max,  Gabriel,  224. 
Meer,  Jan  van  der  (of  Delft)  (mar), 

200. 

Meire,  Gerard  van  der  (mir),  176. 
Meissonier,   Jean    Louis   (ma'so'- 

ne-a'),  154. 
Memling,  Hans,  173. 
Memmi,  Lippo,  19,  64. 
Mengs,  Raphael,  222. 
Menzel,  Adolph  (ment'sel),  225. 
Messina,  Antonello  da  (mes-se'na), 

20,  89. 

Metsu,  Gabriel,  196. 
Meyerheim,  Edward  (mi'er-hlm'), 

225. 

Meyerheim,  Paul,  225. 
Michael  Angelo  (Buonarroti)  (me- 

kel-an'ja-lo),  20,  54. 
Michetti,    Francesco    (me-ket'te), 

IS*- 

Micon  of  Athens,  4. 

Mierevelt,  Michael  Janse  (me'reh- 

velt'),  189. 

Mierevelt,  Pieter,  190. 
Mieris,  Franz  van  (van  me'ris),  197. 


WITH  PRONUNCIATION  OF  FOREIGN  NAMES.    269 


Mignard,  Pierre  (men'yar'),  137. 
Millais,  Sir  John  Everett  (milla'), 

237,  238. 

Millet,  Jean  Fra^ois   (grammati- 
cally, me'ya',  by  popular  usage, 

mela'),  148,  152. 
Monaco,  Don  Lorenzo,  29. 
Monet,  Claude  (mo'na'),  156. 
Montagna,    Bartolommeo    (mon- 

tan'ya),  20,  82. 
Moore,  Alfred,  239. 
Moore,  Henry,  240. 
Morales,  Luis  de   (da  mo-rales), 

159. 

Moran,  Thomas,  245. 
Morelli,  Domenico  (mo-rene),  131. 
Moretto,  II  (Allessandro  Buonvi- 

cino)  (el  mo-ret'to),  103. 
Moro,  Antonio,  179. 
Moroni,   Giovanni    Battista   (mo- 

ro'ne),  103. 
Miiller,  Carl,  225. 
Mulready,  William,  236. 
Munkacsy,  Michael  (moonlca-che), 

226. 
Murillo,  Bartolome  Esteban  (moo- 

rel'yo),  166. 

Navarette,  Juan   Fernandez   (na- 

var-ra'ta),  160. 
Neer,  Artus  van  der  (van  der  nair), 

202. 

Neer,  Henri  van  der,  201. 
Netscher,  Caspar,  196. 
Neuville,   Alphonse  de  (deh   nii'- 

vel'),  156. 

Newton,  Gilbert  Stuart,  236. 
Nittis,  Giuseppe  de  (net'tes),  131. 

Oggiono,  Marco  da  (da  od-jo'no), 
115. 


Opie,  John,  232. 

Orcagna   (Andrea   di  Cione)  (or- 

kan'ya),  19,  28. 
Orchardson,  W.  Q.,  239. 
Orley,  Bernard  van,  178. 
Ostade,  Adrian  van  (van  os'ta'deh), 

198. 

Ostade,  Isaac  van,  201. 
Overbeck,  Friedrich,  222,  223. 

Pacheco,    Francisco    (pa-cha'ko), 

165. 
Padovanino,  II  (el  pa-do-va-ne'no), 

104. 
Palma,  Jacopo  (II  Vecchio)  (palf- 

ma  el  vekTce-o),  20,  97. 
Palma,   Jacopo   (II    Giovine)    (el 

jo-ve'na),  21,  104. 
Palmaroli,  Vincente  (pal-ma-role), 

1 68. 
Parmigiano  (Francesco  Mazzuoli) 

(par-me-ja'no),  20,  112. 
Parrhasius  (par-ra'she-us),  6. 
Parsons,  Alfred,  240. 
Pater,  Jean  Baptiste  (pa'ta),  139. 
Peale,  Charles  W.,  243. 
Peale,  Rembrandt,  243. 
Pearce,  Charles  Sprague,  247. 
Pencz,  George  (pents),  214. 
Pereal,  Jean  (pa'ra-al'),  133. 
Perugino,  Pietro  (Vannucci)    (pa- 

roo-je'no),  20,  71. 
Peruzzi,    Baldassare    (pa-root'se), 

67. 
Peter  of  Cortona  (Pietro  Berettini), 

127. 

Picou,  Henri  Pierre,  154. 
Piloty,  Carl  Theodor  von,  224. 
Pinturricchio    (Bernardino    Betti) 

(pen-too-rek'ke-o),  20,  72. 
Piombo,  Sebastian  del,  20,  94. 


270 


INDEX  OF  ARTISTS 


Pissaro,  Camilla,  157. 

Plockhorst,  B.,  224. 

Pollajuoli,    Antoine     and    Pietro 

(pol'la-yoo-o'le),  44. 
Polygnotus,  3. 
Pontormo,  Jacopo,  60. 
Pordenone,     Giovanni     Antonio 

(por-da-no'na),  103. 
Potter,  Paul,  204. 
Pourbus,  Pieter  (poor1>iis),  179. 
Poussin,  Caspar  (poo'saN'),  136. 
Poussin,  Nicholas,  135. 
Poynter,  Edward  J.,  239. 
Predis,  Ambrogio  de  (pra'des),  1 18. 
Previtali,  Andrea  (pra-ve-ta'le),  91. 
Primaticcio,    Francesco    (pre-ma- 

tet'cho),  79. 
Protogenes,  9. 
Prout,  Samuel,  235. 
Prudhon,  Peter  Paul,  144. 

Rahl,  Carl  (ral),  226. 
Raphael  (Sanzio)  (raf'a-el),  20,  74. 
Regnault,  Henri  (reh-no'),  150. 
Regnault,  Jean  Baptiste,  144. 
Rembrandt  van  Ryn,  190. 
Rene  of  Anjou  (reh-na'),  133. 
Rethel,  Alfred  (ra'tel),  226. 
Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  228. 
Ribalta,  Francisco   de  (re-bal'ta), 

163. 

Ribalta,  Juan  de,  163. 
Ribera  (Lo  Spagnoletto)  (re-ba'ra), 

21,  128. 

Ribera,  Roman,  168. 
Richards,  W.  T.,  245. 
Richter,  Gustav  (rik'ter),  225. 
Rico,  Martin,  168. 
Rigaud,  Hyacinthe  (re'go'),  137. 
Rincon,    Antonio   del   (ren-kon'), 

'59- 


Roelas,  Juan  de  las  (ro-alas),  164. 

Roll,  Alfred  Philippe,  156. 

Romano,  Julio  (Giulio),  20,  79. 

Romney,  George,  230. 

Rosa,  Salvator,  21,  129. 

Roselli,  Cosimo,  20,  43. 

Rossetti,  Dante  Gabriel,  237,  238. 

Rotermund,  Julius  W.  L.,  225. 

Rothenhammer,  Johann  (ro-ten- 
ham'er),  222. 

Rousseau,  Pierre  fitienne  Theo- 
dore (roo'so'),  148,  151. 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul,  180. 

Ruisdael,  Jacob  van  (rois'dal),  202. 

Ruysch,  Rachel  (roisk),  206. 

Salerno,  Andrea  da,  118. 
Sani,  Alexander  (sa'ne),  131. 
Sanzio,  Raphael  (san'ze-o),  20,  74. 
Sargent,  John  S.,  247. 
Sarto,  Andrea  del,  20,  59. 
Sassoferrato    (Giovanni    Battista 

Salvi)  (sas'-o-fer-ra'to)  21,  126. 
Schadow,  Wilhelm  von  (fon  sha'- 

do),  222,  223. 

Schaffner,  Martin  (shaf'ner),  221. 
Schalken,    Godefried     (skal'ken), 

198. 
Schauffelin,    Hans    (show'fe-len), 

213. 
Schedone,  Bartholomeo   (ska-do'- 

na),  21,  127. 

Scheffer,  Ary  (shef'fer),  146. 
Schongauer,  Martin  (shon'gow'er), 

216. 

Schorn,  Carl  (shorn),  225. 
Schrader,  Julius  (shra'der),  225. 
Schwartz,   Christopher   (shvarts), 

222. 
Semitecolo,  Niccolo  (sa'me-ta-co'- 

lo),  84. 


WITH  PRONUNCIATION  OF  FOREIGN  NAMES.    271 


Sesto,  Cesare  da,  118. 
Shirlaw,  Walter,  248. 
Signorelli,  Luca  (sen-yo-rene),  20, 

45- 

Simmons,  Edward  E.,  248. 
Snayers,  Peter  (sm'ers),  188. 
Snyders,  Franz,  183. 
Sodoma,    II   (Giovanni    Antonio 

Bazzi)  (el  so-do'ma),  20,  65. 
Solario,   Andrea    (so-la're-o),    20, 

"5- 
Spagna,  Lo  (Giovanni  di  Pietro) 

(lo  span 'y  a),  20,  73. 
Spagnoletto,      Lo     (Ribera)     (lo 

span-yo-let'to),  21,  128,  163. 
Squarcione,      Francesco     (skwar- 

cho'na),  20,  80. 
Stanzioni,  Massimo  (stan-ze-o'ne), 

131- 

Steen,  Jan  (stan),  198. 
Stothard,  Thomas,  235. 
Stuart,  Gilbert  Charles,  243. 
Stuerbouts,  Dierick  (Bouts)  (stii'- 

er-bouts'),  175. 
Sully,  Thomas,  243. 
Sustermann,    Lambert    (soos'ter- 

man'),  179. 

Tarbell,  Edmund  C.,  248. 
Teniers,    David    (The    Younger) 

(ten'yers),    186. 
Terburg,  Gerard,  195. 
Thayer,  Abbott  H.,  248. 
Theotocupuli,  Domenico  (ta-o-to- 

ko-poole),  1 60. 
Thornhill,  Sir  James,  227. 
Tiepolo,  Gian  Battista  (te-ep'o-lo), 

21,  104. 

Timanthes  (ti-man'thez),  6. 
Tintoretto,   Jacopo    Robusti    (tin- 

to-ret'to),  20,  99. 


Titian  (tish'e-an),  20,  95. 
Troy,  Francois  de  (trwa),  137. 
Troyon,  Constant  (trwa'yoN'),  148, 

152. 

Trumbull,  John,  244. 
Tura,  Cosimo,  20,  105. 
Turner,  James  Mallord   William, 

234- 

Uccello,   Paolo    (oot-chello),    19, 

32- 
Uden,  Lucas  van,  184. 

Vaenius,  Otto,  179. 
Vaga,  Perino  del,  79. 
Van  Dyck,  Anthony,  184. 
Van  Loo,  Carle,  139. 
Vargas,  Luis  de,  164. 
Vedder,  Elihu,  246. 
Veit,  Philip  (vlt),  222. 
Velasquez,  Diego  de  Silva  y  (va- 

las'keth),  161. 
Velde,   Adrian  van  der  (van  der 

vel'deh),  204. 

Velde,  Willem  van  der,  205. 
Veneziano,    Domenico   (va-net-se- 

a'no),  19,  33. 
Verboeckhoven,    Eugene    Joseph 

(ver-book'ho'ven),  188. 
Vernet,  Claude  Joseph  (ver'-na'), 

140. 

Vernet,  fimile  Jean  Horace,  145. 
Veronese    Paul    (va-ro-na'za),   20, 

102. 
Verrocchio,  Andrea  (ver-rok'ke-o), 

20,  46. 
Veyrassat,  Jules  Jacques  (va'-ras'- 

sa'),  152. 

Vien,  Joseph  Marie  (ve'ax'),  142. 
Vincent,    Franfois    Andre    (vaNf- 

SON'),  144. 


272 


IXDZX  Of  ARTISTS. 


Vinci,  Leonardo  da  (da  ven'che), 

20,  48. 

Viti,  Timoteo  (ve'te),  21,  121. 
Vivarini,  Alvise  (ve-va-re'ne),  20, 

91. 

Vivarini,  Antonio,  20,  84. 
Vivarini,  Bartolommeo,  20,  85. 
Volterra,  Dariiele  da,  20,  58. 
Vonnoh,  Robert  W.,  248. 
Vos,  Martin  de,  179. 
Vos,  Paul  de,  188. 
Vouet,  Simon  (voo'a'),  135. 

Waldmiiller  (walt'muller),  226. 
Wappers,     Gustavus    (wap'pers), 

188. 

Ward,  James,  236. 
Watteau,  Antoine  (va'to')  (wa'to'), 

138- 

Watts,  George  F.,  239. 
Wauters,  Emile  (wow'ters),  188. 
Weber,  Paul  (wa'ber),  225. 
Weeks,  Edwin  L.,  247. 
Weir,  J.  Alden,  248. 
Werff,  Adrian  van  der  (van  der 

werf),  201. 


West,  Benjamin,  230,  241. 
Weyden,  Rogier  van  der  (van  der 

vi'den),  172. 

Whistler,  James  A.  McNeill,  247. 
Wiertz,  Anthony  (weerts)  (veerts), 

188. 
Wilhelm,     Meister    (mls-ter    vil'- 

helm),  208. 

Wilkie,  Sir  David,  235. 
Willems,  Florent,  188. 
Wilson,  Richard,  233. 
Wolgemuth,      Michael      (vol'ge- 

moot'),  209. 
Wouverman,      Philip     (wow'ver- 

man'),  203. 
Wyant,  A.  H.,  245. 
Wyllie,  W.  L.,  240. 
Wynants,  Jan,  202. 

Zamacois,  Eduardo  (tha-ma-kois'), 

1 68. 
Zeitblom,  Bartholomew(tsit'blom), 

217. 

Zeuxis,  5. 
Zurbaran,  Francisco  de  (thoor-ba- 

ran'),  166. 


LIBRARY  FACILITY 


A     001  034  585     8 


